^h 



tTHERURALl 
SCIENCE Sga 



SERIES! 

BY LH- BAILEY 



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m. L. Jiv^hUis 



<^tt Kural Science feecitu 

Edited by L. H. Bail.by 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT' 
GROWING 



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Cije diural ^Science Series; 

The Soil. 

The Spraying of Plants. 

Milk and Its Products. 

The Fertility of the Land. 

The Principles of Fruit Growing. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The Principles of Agriculture. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare. 

The Farmstead. 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm Poultry. 

The Feeding of Animals. 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

The Care of Animals. 

The Horse. 

How to Choose a Farm. 

Forage Crops. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. 

The Nursery-Book. 

Plant-Breeding. 

The Forcing-Book. 

Garden-Making. 

The Pruning-Book. 

The Practical Garden-Book. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
FRUIT-GROWING ,% 

4 



L. H. BAILEY 



EIGHTEENTH EDITION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd, 

1913 

All rights reserved 



s:s>35s 

.3)5 
in 13 



Copyright, 1897 
By L. H. BAILEY 



Set up and eleotrotyped June 1897. 
RepriB ted July. 1898; July, 1900; July, 1901; June, 1902; February, 1904, 
January,. 1905; January, November, 1906; October, 1907; June, 1908; 
January, July, 1909; January, 1910; January, November. 1911; 
April, 1912; March, 1913. 



ill Exchange 

U m ^- .. of MarylaJod ^ 

MAP 1 2 mt 



^ount Pleasant J^reW 

). Horace McFarland Co. 
Harrisburg, Pa. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND 
EDITION. 

It is nearly a year since I left this work with 
the printer. The first copy of the book which I 
saw was procured in a foreign land; and now that a 
second edition is called for, I find myself again in 
fields and orchards of another country. These per- 
sonal remarks are not of themselves worth making 
here; but they shall be my excuse for writing a few 
contrasts of American and European fruit-growing. 

Classified in respect to the objects in view, there 
are two kinds of fruit-growing, — that which desires 
the product primarily for home use, and that which 
desires it primarily for market. Of market or com- 
mercial fruit-growing, there are again two types, — 
that which aims at a special or personal market, and 
that which aims at the general or open market. The 
ideals in these two types of fruit-growing are very 
unlike, and the methods and the varieties which suc- 
ceed for the one may not succeed for the other. The 
man who grows fruits for the special market, has 
a definite problem. The product is desired for its 
intrinsic qualities; and special products demand special 
prices. The man who grows fruit for the world's 
market, has no personal customer. The product is 



vi Preface. 

desired for its extrinsic or market qualities; and the 
world's products bring the world's prices. The 
special -market fruit-grower generally works on a 
small base. The world's -market fruit-grower works 
on a large base ; or he sells to another who, by com- 
bining sirnilar products of many persons, is able to 
command the attention of the market. 

Now, it is the large base upon which American 
fruit-growing is established which enables it to enter 
European markets. In America are thousands of acres 
of one variety, and the conditions under which the 
fruits are grown are so similar as to produce uni- 
formity in the product. We speak one language, and, 
although we are two nations, we live in practically 
the same political environment. • We go to Europe, 
and to our own great markets, with wholesale quan- 
tities. 

In Europe, on the contrarj', nearly every fruit- 
growing center is unique. The industry is the out- 
come of years, may be of centuries, of local effort 
and tradition. There is no general uniformity of 
methods and varieties. Community of interests on a 
large base is impossible. There are insurmountable 
difficulties of physiography, of races, languages and 
political systems. In the staple products, the Euro- 
pean grower may not be able to compete with Ameri- 
cans in his own markets, so long as those markets 
remain naturally open. 

The American fruit-grower quickly assimilates new 
methods. He is unfettered by tradition; and how 
much this means only those can understand who know 



Preface. vii 

the European customs and ideals. He is bold and 
confident. He easily buys and sells land. He con- 
trols his own efforts and destinies. He has more help 
from teachers and experiment stations than the Euro- 
pean has. A single instance will illustrate all this. 
Spraying for fungous diseases is a European develop- 
ment, whereas large -area spraying for insects is an 
American development. The American has assimi- 
lated the spraying for plant diseases and has made 
improvements in the machinery, while he has at the 
same time made equal progress in fighting insects; 
but the European has not assimilated the American 
methods of handling insects, and spraying for plant 
diseases is probably less generally understood than in 
America. 

In many parts of Europe, the farmer is a tenant, 
and he therefore has little interest in planting trees. 
But even if he owns land, the area is usually small, 
notwithstanding the fact that there are manj^ very 
large individual plantations. There are few great geo- 
graphical regions which are adapted to fruit-growing, 
or which, if they are adapted, can be utilized for that 
purpose. The environments of the Old World farmer 
are relatively inflexible. The result is that his methods 
tend to become stereotyped and rigid. He lacks the 
inspiration which comes of conditions which are easily 
recast and modified. His small areas must be so 
crowded with many kinds of plants that machine- 
work is impossible. There are few orchards in Europe, 
as that word is understood in America, meaning an 
area devoted exclusively to tree fruits set at regular 



viii Preface. 

distances and cultivated systematically with labor- 
saving machinery. 

For these and other reasons, as well as for the 
fact that our fruits and their manufactured products 
are attractive and of good quality, I believe that the 
American fruit-grower will find an increasing market 
in Europe. But the greater the quantity sent abroad, 
the more discriminating will that market become; and 
it must be true that the brands and the varieties of 
inferior quality tend to supply the inferior markets. 

But if I believe that American fruit-growing is in 
advance of the European in its general commercial 
aspects, I am equally convinced that the European is 
in advance in growing for special and personal uses. 
The narrowness of the enterprises, the competition in 
restricted areas, the respect for traditional methods and 
varieties, conserve the very elements which appeal 
to the discriminating consumer, while, at the same 
time, they develop grea't skill in the fruit-grower. 
The care which is bestowed on individual plants, the 
niceties of exposure and of training, the patient hand- 
work, may almost be said to develop personal traits 
in the fruits themselves. Such fruits may not find a 
place in the open market, but for that very reason 
they may have a higher commercial value. 

At the head of a little valley, closely shut in by 
the Alps, is a famous apple orchard. The trees are 
trained upright on the opposite sides of a double espa- 
lier or trellis, the sides of which are less than two feet 
apart. In each of these rows, the trees are two to 
four feet asunder. These trellises are perhaps ten feet 



Preface . ix 

the one from the other, and between each two is a 
row of apples on cordons or single horizontal wires; 
and in the spaces potatoes or other annual crops are 
often planted. Even the wires that brace the end 
posts of the trellises have apple trees trained on 
them like strands of vines. Each tree is trained to 
a definite number of branches or arms, and even the 
fruit -spurs are carefully determined. This plantation 
is the property of a company whose business it is to 
care for the land and the trees, and to find a mar- 
ket for the fruit. It is expensive to grow apples 
in this way ; but the best Calvilles often bring a 
gulden (about forty -one cents) apiece. 

Perhaps the most important lesson which the 
American fruit-grower has yet to learn is the fact 
that there are two types of effort in commercial fruit- 
growing, and that there may be pecuniary reward in 
fruits which are unknown in the market. Failure to. 
distinguish these two categories is the result of a con- 
fusion of ideas. One grows fruit either for a special 
and personal market, in which case he looks for his 
own customer and is independent of general trade; or 
he grows what the market demands, and allows the 
machinery of trade to handle the product. In the 
latter effort, the American fruit-grower is preeminent; 
but in the former he has made little more than a 
beginning. 

L. H. BAILEY. 

BozEN, Tyrol, May 20, 1898. 



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V 



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CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 



Introductory Discussion 

Inventory of fruits. Orchard culture or tree-fruit cul- 
ture— VomsiCGona fruits -Drupaceous or stone fruits — Citrous 
fruits -Moraceous fruits -Anonaceous fruits— Myrtaceous 
fruits -Sapotaceous fruits— Anacardiaceous fruits-Ebeii- 
aceous fruits -Leguminous fruits -Nut-fruits -Palmaceous 
fruits -Miscellaneous tree-fruits.- Fme-/nn'i citZtore- Viti- 
culture— Passifloraceous fruits. — Small-fruit culture — Ru- 
baceous fruits -Ribaceous fruits -Miscellaneous bush-fruits 
-Strawberry culture -Cranberry cnlture.- JVon-woody or 
herb-like /rjri^s -Musaceous fruits -Pineapple -Cactaceous 
fruits— Miscellaneous herb-like fruits 

The geography of fruit-growing. The temperature 
determinant— The moisture determinant— The soil deter- 
minant—The parasite determinant 

The course of evolution of a fruit-region. 

The outlook for fruit-growing. The two factors con- 
cerned—Farmers do not become rich— Always a demand for 
the unlike— Choice of business is a matter of taste and cap- 
ital—Farmer must master his local conditions — The fruit- 
grower, therefore, must be trained — Best farmers are often 
not brought up on the farm -The farmer is his own business 
manager— Outlook best in those fruits which make the 
greatest number of secondary products. -Js there over pro- 
duction of /rwif.?— Insufficient distribution -Tendency must 
be for cheaper fruit— Normal failure of many plantations. . 

(xi) 



Pages 
1-36 



2-7 



7-25 
26-27 



27-36 



xii Contents. 

CHAPTER II. 

Paqks 
The Location and its Climate 37-131 

The place. The geography of a fruit farm— Choice with 
reference to markets and frosts. — Location with reference to 
marfcet — Importance of transportation facilities — The per- 
sonal markets. — Location with reference to frosts — Frosts 
and freezes — Proximity to bodies of water— Nature of the 
influence of lakes — Retardation of bloom— Elevation and 
frost— Climate held responsible for too much— The declining 
peach &rea,s.— Winds and air-currents in relation to fruit- 
growing—High and rolling lands— High winds to be avoided 

— Effects of winds in drying up land and plants — Low wind- 
breaks to" lessen evaporation. — Atmospheric drainage — The 
currents of air— Cold and dense air settles in low places— 
The frosty belt below a wood— Very small objects intercept 
movement of cold air— Temperatures of high and low sta- 
tions 37-57 

The site for the fruit plantation. Elevated sites 
usually better— The exposure. — T?<e aspect — North and south 
slopes 58-61 

Wind-breaks for fruit plantations. Tabulated opin- 
ions of fruit-growers — Epitome of benefits of wind-breaks- 
Experiences adverse to wind-hreaks. — Statements of authors 

— Wind-breaks for many kinds of fruits and in various parts 
of the country. — J'^ores^s and frtiit-growing — InQnence upon 
wind and moisture— Its relation to insects and diseases. — 
Review of the influences of wind-hreaks upon fruit planta- 
tions— Yfhait winds it is desired to break — Winds from bodies 
of water— The effect of a wind-break upon winds. — Po.s'<7t ox 
of the wind-break with reference to the fruit plantation — The 
prevailing winds — Opinions of fruit-growers. — ^ow to make 
the wind-break — Kinds of trees — Opinions of fruit-growers — 
Conclusions. — (re weraZ summary upon wind-breaks — Con- 
densed statements of benefits and injuries .... 62-92 

Protecting plantations from frost. Mulching to en- 
able plants to escape frost— Ex^^eriments at Ithaca— Mulching 
strawberries — Conclusions. — Covering plants for protection — 
Methods of covering— Laying down blackberries and rasp- 
berries—Protecting peach trees. — Adding vapor of water 



Contents. xiii 

Paoks 
to the air— Irrigating and flooding— Spraying for frost— Till- 
ing— Systematic evaporation of water in orchards. — Tfce 
making 0/ smttdgres — Characteristics of a good smudge — Ma- 
terials to use — Spraying the smudges— An account of Euro- 
pean exTperience. — Making currents of air— Heating the air 

-Use of large fires 92-121 

The prediction op frost. Records of frosts — Frost 
charts — The psychrometer— Finding the dew-point. . . 121-131 

CHAPTER III. 

The Tillage of Fruit Lands 133-174 

Evolution of tillage — Apparently contrary to nature — Com- 
parison with the forest— Weeds — Neglect of apple orchards. 

The philosophy op tillage. Three main objects of t\\\- 
age. — The texture of the soi?— Physical conditions more im- 
portant than mere •plant-food. — The moisture of the soil- 
Drought and rainfall — The moisture reservoir— Fall plowing 
— Tillage to save moisture — The earth-mulch. . . . 138-145 

Use of the various tools in relation to conserva- 
tion of moisture. Plowing to save moisture — The test ot 
good plowing. — Harrowing to save moisture— The spring- 
tooth harrow — The acme harrow— The disc harrows — The 
smoothing harrows. — Cultivators and conservation of mois- 
ture— hevel culture vs. ridge culture. — T/ie roller in its 
relation to soil moisture — Di&iculty of using the roller prop- 
erly—Its relation to seeding— Should be followed by tillage . 145-154 

Suggestions for the tilling op fruit lands. Drain- 
ing— Subsoiling— Preliminary preparation of land for fruit 
plantations — The plowing of the orchard— Level culture — 
The tools — Harnesses — The tillage in the early and late years 
of the orchard.. — Specific remarks — 1, Begin to till when the 
orchard is planted, and till the entire surface— The deep root- 
ing of trees — 2, Tillage should be begun early in the season, 
in orchards — The early growth of trees — 3, Tillage should 
generally be stopped in late summer or very early fall— 4, Till 
in such manner that the land may be in uniform fine tilth — 
5, Tillage may be overdone — Too rapid growth ,. . . 154-169 



xiv Contents. 

Pages 
Cropping the orohard. The open space about the tree— 

The kind of crops for an orchard— Nursery stock in fruit 

plantations — Sod in the orchard— Fallowing the orchard . 170-174 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Fertilizing of Fruit Lands .... 175-223 

Plants will grow without fertilizers — Profit may lie in 
using additional plant-food, however— Humus — Formation 
of soils— Weeds. 

The lesson op nursery lands. Injuries to such lands- 
Source of fertility in soils— Man's treatment of the land — 
The features of the nursery lands — The conclusions respect- 
ing the depletion of nursery lands 178-183 

Cover crops. What they are— Objects of their use— Ex- 
periments with covers at CorneU. — The kinds of cover crops 
—A local question — Rye — Corn, buckwheat and cereals — Peas 
and beans— Cow pea— Vetch — Crimson Clover— Analyses . 184-202 

Fertilizing the fruit plantation. Trees vs. annual 
crops — Plant-food taken up by trees — Effects of the various 
elements — New Jersey experiments in fertilizing peaches.— 
Stable »na«Mre — Rotation in manures — Danger of over use 
of barn manures. — Chemical fertilisers — Nitrogen — Potash — 
Phosphoric acid — Recommendations by Voorhees. — Sum- 
mary statement .......... 202-22.3 

CHAPTER V. 

The Planting of Fruit Grounds .... 224-27G 

The choice of varieties. A personal question — The 
mental ideal— 1, Follow personal preferences — 2, Obtain a 
specific ideal of the purpose for which the fruit is to be 
grown— 3, Do not covet varieties of other geographical re- 
gions— 4, Choose with reference to local environment— 5, 
Choose with reference to inter-pollination— The mixing of 
varieties— Lists of self-fertile and self-sterile varieties — 6, 
The choice should be aided by inquiry of many persons and 
accessible writings . 224-230 



Contents. xv 

Paoks 
The selection op the plants. What is first-class stock? 

— Age at which to buy. — Dwarfs vs. standards — The parent- 
age of the stock may affect Us value — Buying the trees- 
Peddlers— Near-by nurseries 230-237 

The setting of the plants. When to plant — F&ll vs. 
spring— Stripped trees.- Distance apart— The mixing of 
species, or double planting — The opinions of Van Deman.— 
How to plant the stock — Preparing the land — Making the 
holes — Mulching— Puddling. — Trt)/r»n»;7 the trees — The two 
ideals — Illustrations of methods — Trim after planting — Trim- 
ming fall-set trees 2o7-2.54 

The laying out of the fruit plantation. Surveying 
the land — The corn marker— Tree placers. — To layout with 
the plow — Laying out with a line — Another line method- 
Staking methods — Orchard plans — The hexagonal or Van 
Deman plan — The alternate plan — The Wellhouse plan — 
The Parker Earle plan — The Olden plan — Hale and Olden 
-plana for -peach orchards. — The family fruit plantation . . 2.54-276 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Secondary and Incidental Care of the Fruit 

Plantation 277-343 

Epitome of methods of tilling the land — May not be neces- 
sary to plow when orchard is grown — Effect of breaking the 
roots— The tools— Importance of saving the moisture. 

The general care op the plants. Staking young 
trees — Sun-scald— Ba rk-hound trees — Scraping trees — Gir- 
dled trees and girdling — Pruning and heading -in— Winter 
preparations — Depredations of stock and birds— Top -graft- 
ing hearing trees— Thinning the fruit ..... 282-306 

Maps and records. Record books and plans — Labels . 307-313 

Injuries by cold and rain. Winter -killing of the wood. 

— Winter -killing of the fruit-buds — Injuries to the stvelling 
buds — Injuries to flowers and growing parts— What is an in- 
jurious degree of cold? — The effect of rain upon blossoms . 313-340 

Renovating old orchards. Nature of the problem— How 
to begin and what to expect— Why are orchards barren f . 340-343 



xvi Contents. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Pages 
Diseases, Insects and Spraying 344-377 

Historical coirtrast respecting spraying— Secondary results 
of the spraying idea— Calls attention to pests — Forces new 
ideals — Will bring in some of the discarded varieties— Forces 
a closer study of companionships of pests and crops, and of 
rotations— Will take its place as one of the cardinal opera- 
tions of fruit farming— Will force better care of the planta- 
tion—Will make the grower more watchful— Will enlarge his 
horizon— Classification of pests and diseases — Insects — Para- 
sitic fungi— Physiological and germ diseases — Borers — Root- 
galls— Injuries by hail — Bagging, 

Specific remarks upon spraying. 1, Sprayiyig is only 
one of the requisites to success in fruit-raising — 2, Spraying 
is an insurance — 3, Spraying is of some value every year 
upon apples, pears, plums, quinces, grapes and various other 
fruits — ^, Spray thoroughly, or not at all — 5, Prepare for 
next yearns work during the winter— 6, The style of pump 
and nozzle to rise depends almost wholly upon the particular 
kind of work to he done — 7, The farmer should know what he 
wants to kill before he begins to spray — 8, The time to spray 
must be determined for each particular case— 9, Prepare 
stock solutions for the Bordeaux mixture, rather than to 
make each batch in the quantities called for by the formula — 
10, ffoiv can one tell if soluble arsenic is present in Paris 
green .? — 11, ffow can one determine if Paris green is pure ? 
— 12, What becomes of the arsenic when it falls upon the 
soil ? — Summary. 353-377 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Harvesting and Marketing Fruit . . , . 378-479 

Picking fruits. When to ptcfc— Long-keeping and ripe- 
ness — Apples — Pears — Peaches and apricots — Cherries and 
plums. — How to picfc— Pick by the stem — Leave the stem on 
—Fruit is picked in temporary receptacles — Ladders— Fruit- 
pickers — Keep fruit away from the 9,\in- — Keepirig records 
with the pickers — Necessity of hand-picking . . . . 378-401 



Contents. xvii 

Pages 
The packing of fruit. What is first-class fruit? — Im- 
portance of uniformity in size. — How in pack — The tiers or 
layers of fruit— Facing fruit in barrels — Packing for export 

— Packing in California— German agitation— Wrapping the 
fruits — Snugness in packing — Trade-marks — Fruit must be 

well grown. — Packages 401-425 

Packing houses and appliances. Two types of houses 

— Packing tables— Sorting tables — Apple presses . . . 425-434 
Storing fruits. General advice — Storage is a business 

by itself— Temporary storage — Risks in storing— Coopera- 
tive storage. — Eequisifes for domestic 6-^oragre — Ventilation 

— Moisture — Fruit trays. — Storage Buildings — Various types 

— Vermont apple house — Alwood's house — Alcoholic vapor 

as a fruit preservative 435-461 

Shipping and reaching the consumer. The grower 
and the consumer-How to reach the market.— Refrigerator 
cars — Shipping associations — An illustration of a fruit 
market 461-479 



APPENDIX (pages 481-500) 

1. How DID THE VARIETIES OF FRUITS ORIGINATE? 481-482 

II. Remarks on classifying and describing fruits 483-487 
III. American books on fruit-growing. . , 488-501 



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THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT 
GROWING. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTBOD UCTOB Y DISC USSION. 

Fruit-growing and pomology are synonymous 
terms. They comprise the whole art of raising 
fruits and fruit-trees, and the applications of the 
various sciences thereto. It is impossible to define 
what a fruit is, in the sense in which the term is 
universally understood in pomological writings. It is 
best delimited by giving a list of those products 
which are commonly known as fruits. If a defini- 
tion were attempted of the use of the word in its 
pomological application, it would be approximately 
correct to say that a fruit is the edible product of 
a woody or a tree -like plant, — as of a tree, bush, or 
vine, — and which is intimately associated in its de- 
velopment with the flower. This conception of a 
fruit is wholly unlike the botanical idea, for the 
botanist defines the fruit to be the ripened pericarp 
and attachments. It should be said, however, that 
this confusion in terminology is not the fault of 



2 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

the liorticulturist, for the botanists have taken this 
common -language word and have given it a tech- 
nical meaning. The word belongs primarily to gen- 
eral literature and horticulture, and if the botanist 
desires to impress it into other service, he must be 
prepared to accept the confusion which arises. 



INVENTORY OF FRUITS. 

Pomological fruits may be roughly classified under 
four heads, — tree fruits, vine fruits, small fruits, 
and herb -like fruits. The following is an inventory 
of the staple fruits of the United States and Can- 
ada, and of those lesser known species which, hav- 
ing been tried in this territory, either give promise 
of successful cultivation here or have been more 
or less prominent subjects of discussion: 

Class I. Orchard* Culture, or Tree-fruit Culture. 
Sub-class 1. Pomaceous fruits. 
Apple, Pyrus Malus. 
Crab apple, Pyrus baccata. 
Prairie crab, Pyrus loensis. 
Atlantic crab, Pyrtis coronaria. 
Pear, Pyrus communis. 
Sand pear, Pyrus Sinensis. 
Quince, Pyrus Cydonia. 
Chinese quince, Pyrus Cathayensis. 
Japan quince, Pyrus Japonica. 
Maule's quince, Pyrus Maulei. 
Medlar, Mespilus Germanica. 
Loquat, JEriobotrya Japonica. 



* Orchard (originally herb-yard, and now rarely written hortyard). 
semblage or plantation of fruit trees. 



The Orchard Fruits. 

Sub-class 2. Drupaceous or stone fruits. 
Plum, Prunus domestica. 
Myrobalan plum, Prunus cerasifera. 
Japan plum, Prunus tri flora. 
American plum, Prunus Americana. 
Wild Goose plum, Prunus hortulana. 
Chickasaw plum, Prunus angustifolia. 
Sand plum, Prumis Watsoni. 
Beach plum, Prunus maritima. 
Pacific plum, Prumis subcordata . 
Apricot plum, Prunus Simonii. 
Sweet cherry, Prumis Avitim. 
Sour cherry, Prunus Cerasus. 
Sand cherry, Prunus JBesseyi. 
Peach and nectarine, Primus Persica. 
Apricot, Prunus Armeniaca. 
Japan apricot, Prunus Mume. 
Puri)le apricot, Prunus dasycarpa. 

Sub-class 3. Citrous fruits. 
Orange, Citrus Aurantium. 
Tangierine orange, Citrus vobiUs. 
Citron, Citrus Medica. 
Lemon, Citrus Medica var. Limon. 
Lime, Citrus Medica var. Limetta. 

Sour lime (lime of the U. S.), Citrus Medica var. acris. 
Grape-fruit, Shaddock or Pomelo, Citrus Decumana. 
Kumquat, Citrus Japonica. 
Trifoliate orange, ^gle (or Citrus) trifoliata. 
Glycosmis, Glycosmis aurantiaca. 
Lime berry, Triphrasia trifoliata. 
White sapota, Casimiroa edulis. 

Sub-class 4. Moraceous fruits. 
Fig, Ficus Carica. 

White (and Russian) mulberry, Morus alba. 
Black mulberry, Mor%is nigra. 
Red mulberry, Morus rubra. 
Downing mulberry, Morus multicaulis. 
Japan mulberry, Morus Japonica. 
Bread-fruit, Artocarpus incisa. 



The Principles of Fruit - grow mg . 

Sub-class 5. Anonaceous fruits. 
Sour-sop, Anona mxiricata. 
Sugar-apple, Anona squamosa. 
Cherimoya, Anona Cherimolia. 
Pond-apple, Anona lavrifolia. 
And other auonas. 
Noi'thern Papaw, Asimina triloba. 

Sub-class 6. Myrtaceous fruits. 

Guava, Psidium Guajuva, and others. 
Rose-apple, Eugenia Jamhos. 
Surinam cherry, Eugenia uniflora. 
And other eugenias. 

Sub-class 7. Sapotaceous fruits. 
Sapodilla, Achras Sapota. 
Marmalade tree, Luck nut mammosa. 
Star-apple, ChrysophyJlntn Cainito. 
And others. 

Sub-class 8. Anacardiaceous fruits. 
Mango, Mangifera Indica. 
-Jew plum, Spondias dulcis. 

Sub-class 9. Ebenaceous fruits, 

Kaki (Japan persimmon), Diospyros Kaki. 
Persimmon, Diospyros Virginiana. 

Sub-class 10. Leguminous fruits. 
Tamarind, Tamarindus Indica. 
St, John's Bread, or Carob, Ceratonia sihqua. 

Sub-class 11. Nut-fruits (Nuciculture) , 
Walnut, Juglans regia. 
Japan walnut, Juglans Sieboldiana. 
Black walnut, Juglans nigra. 
Butternut, Juglans cinerea. 
Pecan, HicorXa Pecan. 
Shell-bark hickory, Eicoria ovata and H. laciniasa 



The Orchard and Vine Fruits. 

European chestnut, Castanea vesca. 
American chestnut, Castanea Americana. 
Japan chestnut, Castanea Japonica. 
Chinquapin, Castanea pumila. 
Filbert, Corylus Avellana. 
Litchi, Nephelium Litchi. 
Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloha. 
Almond, Prunus Amygdalus. 
Russian almond, Prunus nana. 
Tropical almond, Terminalla Catappa. 
Cashew, Anacarditim occidentale. 
Pistacio, Pistacio vera. 

Sub-class 12. Palmaceous fruits. 

Cocoa-nut, Cocos nucifera. 
Date, Phoenix dactylifera. 
And others. 

SuB-cL,A.ss i;5. Miscellaneous tree-fruits. 

Olive, Olea Uuropoia. 

Pomegranate, Pitnica Granatum. 

Papaw, Carica Papaya. 

Hovenia, Hovenia dulcis. 

Jujube, Zizyphus Jvjuha, and others. 

Myrica, Myrica Nagi (31. rubra ). 

Sea-grape, Coccoloba uvifera. 

Otaheite gooseberry, Phyllanthns disficha. 

Spanish lime, Melicncca bijuga. 

Alligator pear, Persea gratissima. 

Strawberry tree. Arbutus Unedo. 

Mammee apple, Alammea Americana. 

CLASS II. Vine- FRUIT Culture. 

Sub-class 1. Viticulture; comprising 
Wine grape, Vitis vinifera. 
Fox grape, Vitis Labrusca. 
Summer grape, Vitis aestivalis, 
Post-oak grape, Vitis cestivalis, var. Linsecomii, 
Muscadine and Scuppernong grapes, Vitis rotundifolia. 



The Principles of Fruit -y rowing. 

Sand grape, Vitis rupestris. 
River-bank grape, Vitis vulpinn. 
And other native species of vitis. 

Sub-class 2. Passifloraceous fruits. 

Granadilla, Passiflora edulis. 
And others. 



CLASS III. Small- FRUIT* Culture. 
Sub-class 1. Bush-fruits. 
Group a. Rubaceous fruits (caue-fruits, or bramble-fruits). . 
Raspberry, Rubus Idanis. 
Black-cap raspberry, Rubus occidentalis. 
Red raspberry, Rubus strigosus. 
Wineberry, Rubus pluenicolasius. 
Blackberry, Rubus villosus. 
Northern dewberry, Rubus Canadensis. 
Southern dewberry, Rubus triviaUs. 
Pacific dewberry, Rubus vitifolius. 

Group b. Ribaceous fruits. 
Currant, Ribes rubrum. 
Black currant, Ribes nigrum. 
Buffalo currant, Ribes aureutn. 
Gooseberry, Ribes Grossularia. 
American gooseberry, Ribes oxyacanthnides . 

Group c. Miscellaneous bush-fruits. 
Juneberry, Amelanchier oblongifolia. 
Buffalo berry, Shepherdia argentea. 
Goumi, Eloeagnus multiflora (E. longipes). 
Caraunda, Carissa Carundas. 

* Small-fruits. A term applied to all small and berry-like fruits which are 
produced upon bushes or perennial herbaceous plants; as currant, blackberry, 
raspberry, strawberry. In Europe the strawberry is classed with garden vege- 
tables. Small-fruits is an American term. 

Bush-fruits. Fruits which are borne upon bushes, or small woody plants 
destitute of a central stem or axis. It is an English term, and is equivalent 
to small-fruits, except that it does not include the strawberry. 



Non - woody Fruits . 

Sub-class 2. Strawberry culture. 

Garden strawberry, Fragaria CJiiloensis. 
Hautbois strawberry, Fragaria moschata. 
Alpine strawberry, Fragaria vesca. 
Virginian strawberry, Fragaria Virginiana. 

Sub-class 3. Cranberry culture. • 

Common cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon. 

CLASS IV. Non-woody or Herb-like Fruits. 
Sub-class 1. Mvisaceous fruits. 
Banana, Musa Sapieutium. 
Plantain, 3fnsa, paradisiaca. 

Sub-class 2. Pineapple. 

Common pineapple. Ananas sativus. 

Sub-class 3. Cactaceous fruits. 

Prickly pear, Opuntia Tuna, and others. 
Indian fig, Opuntia Fieus-Indica. 
Barbadoes gooseberry, Pereskia aculeata. 

Sub-class 4, Miscellaneous herb-like fruits. 
Cyphomandra, Cyphomandra betacea. 
Ceriman, Monstera deliciosa. 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF FRUIT-GROWING. 

Fruit-growing, in common with all agricultural 
pursuits, thrives best in certain geographical areas. 
That is, the business is not capable of equal develop- 
ment in all parts of the country. The leading de- 
terminative factor in the distribution of fruit -culture 
is climate. The particular quality or factor of climate 
which determines the fruit -zones differs with each 



8 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

type or group of fruits ; but iu general it may be 
said that the relative annual temperature is the 
most influential factor. 

The temperature determinant. — It is customary to 
recognize three general climatal fruit -zones, — the 
temperate (typified by the apple and the peach), the 
semi-tropical (citrous tribes, fig, olive, pomegranate), 
and the tropical (cocoa-nut, banana, anona, mango). 
There are no positive limits of temperature which 
mark off or separate these zones ; but it is enough 
for our purpose to say that the temperate zone is 
one which is marked by a long winter of freezing 
and by the deciduous types of fruits ; the semi- 
tropical zone is one in which the winter is a short 
season of light frosts or only occasional freezes, and 
in which the fruit trees are evergreen or very nearly 
so ; and the tropical zone is frostless, and is marked 
by evergreen and mostly ever-growing fruit -plants. 

The limits of these climatal zones are exceedingly 
devious. In eastern North America, the northern 
limit of profitable fruit-growing is not far from the 
forty -fifth parallel, and the limit sink's considerably 
lower than this in the middle west, and rises much 
above it on the Pacific slope. The. northern limit 
of the sub -tropical zone in the east is Northern 
Florida and a narrow area skirting the Gulf of 
Mexico, and upon the western side of the continent 
it extends in the valley climates as high as the 
fortieth parallel. The only portion of the tropical 
fruit -zone which lies in the United States is in 
extreme southern Florida, comprising about two 



Moisture and Fruit-growing. 9 

degrees of latitude (reaching northwards to about 
27°). Beyond all these bounds there are special 
localities in which fruits of the adjacent zone may 
thrive for a series of years, and the fruits of con- 
tiguous zones overpass. The strawberry is probably 
the most tractable of all our fruits as respec.'-s 
climates, because its stature and habit allow it to be 
protected from extreme cold and its short period 
of growth allows it to thrive in the cool season 
of the warmest sub -tropical regions. 

The annual temperature of a region is chiefly 
determined by three factors, — the latitude, the 
altitude, and the proximity or remoteness of large 
bodies of water. 

The moisture deternmiant. — The second chief fac- 
tor of climate in determining the fruit -zones is rela- 
tive humidity. Whilst the isotherms — or lines of 
equal temperatures — run easterly and westerly, the 
isohyetals — or lines of equal rainfall— have no in- 
trinsic direction. They are determined by physio- 
graphical characters. In the United States, there are 
three general fruit-zones which are marked by pecu- 
liarities of rainfall. These are the Atlantic zone, 
a moist area which is bounded westward approxi- 
mately by the Mississippi River ; the plain zone, 
extending westward to the mountains ; and the 
Pacific slope zone. The two latter are relatively 
dry.* The interior or plains region is particularly 

*We should, perhaps, make a fourth division, to comprise the arid or 
Sonoran zone of New Mexico and Arizona, but this area is yet too little 
known in a pomological way to demand specific treatment here. 



10 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

trying to fruits because of the strong ana dry 
winter winds, which evaporate the moisture from the 
trees whilst the ground is often so deeply frozen 
that the roots cannot supply moisture. There is 
probably always evaporation from tree tops in win- 
ter when the air is drier than the wood. 

The fact that moisture may be lost from winter 
twigs is a most important consideration in the 
study of the winter injury of trees, and it throws 
light upon the severe damage which often follows 
the "dry freezing" of nursery trees in transit and 
of fall -planted trees. A few figures will show the 
extent to which evaporation may take place through 
the bark of dormant twigs.* 

The extent to which loss of moisture may take 
place through the bark of dormant twigs may be 
determined by cutting off the twigs and quickly 
sealing over the ends with wax, weighing them, and 
then detecting the loss in weight from time to 
time. The following figures of such measure- 
ments will serve to emphasize the fact that moisture 
is lost from winter twigs, although they are not 
designed to show the actual rate of this loss when 
the twigs occupy their natural position on the tree. 

April 7, a cion of apple weighing 4.425 grams 
was placed on a balance, and the loss by evapora- 
tion measured at intervals during three days. The 
cut end of the cion was sealed with wax to con- 
fine evaporation to that which may take place 
through the bark. The balance or scales was placed 

* Bailey, Cornell Exp. Sta., Bull. 117, pp. 385-388. Work done in Michigan. 



Loss of Moisture from Winter Twigs. 



11 



in a living-room, where the readings could be 
taken at frequent intervals. It will be noticed 
that the rate of evaporation was nearly constant, 
averaging about one -half a centigram per hour: 





T-ost 


Addi- 


Tn 


. In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


In 


To- 


Per 




in 


loss 


t8 


24 


26 


36 


44 


48 


51 


60 


64 


68 


77 


tal 


cent 




2hrs 


in 12 
hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


hrs 


loss 


loss 


Twig 






























































weighing 
































4.425 


1 


5 eg. 


o 


5 


2 


5 


4 


2 


2 


4 


2 


'i 


3 


:{9 


8.8 


grams. 


eg. 


eg- 


eg. 


eg- 


eg. 


eg. 


eg. 


eg. 


c. 


eg. 


eg. 


eg. 


eg. 



It has been said that the rate of the loss of 
moisture from trees in winter determines the rela- 
tive hardiness of different varieties of apples, and 
of some other fruits ; and similar inferences have 
been made respecting the ability of foliage to endure 
summer droughts. The following table shows studies 
of twigs of varieties of different degrees of hardi- 
ness, but it will l)e seen that the per cent of loss 
of moisture bears no relation to the supposed 
hardiness of the varieties. 

Early in April, twigs from the previous year's 
growth were taken from several varieties of apples, 
which vary much in their ability to endure our cli- 
mate (those marked by asterisks being supposed to 
be the hardiest varieties) . The twigs were carefully 
weighed, and the cut ends were then sealed with 
wax to prevent evaporation only through the bark. 
At the expiration of two days the wax was re- 
moved and the twigs were again weighed. The 
twigs were kept in an open shed: 



12 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



Original 

Varieties. weight. 

1 Grams. 


Weigh t at 
the expira- 
tion of two 
days. 
Grams. 


Loss. 


Per cent 
of loss. 


Seek-uo-further, Twig No. 1 . 

Seek-uo-further, No. 2 

*Fameuse, No. 1 

*Pameuse, No. 2 

Fall Jeunettiug, No. 1 

Fall elennetting, No. 2 

*Northern Spy, No. 1 


1.07 

1.3275 

1.095 

.82 
1.0475 
1.45 
1.38 
1.155 
1.595 
1.8475 
1.3725 
2.11 
1.34 

.93 
1.1825 
1.055 
1.8075 
1.45 
1.4825 


.985 
1.255 
1.025 

.725 
1. 

1.3875 
1.3125 
1.0925 
1.55 
1.7475 
1.265 
2.0025 
1.26 

.87 
1.11 

.99 
1.7075 
1.3425 
1.4075 


.085 

.0725 

.07 

.085 

.0475 

.0625 

.0675 

.0625 

.045 

.1 

.1075 

.1075 

.08 

.06 

.0725 

.065 

.1 

.1075 

.075 


7.94 
5.46 
6.39 
10.3 
4.53 
4.31 
4.89 


*Northern Spy, No. 2 

*01denbiirg. No. 1 

*01denburg, No. 2 


5.4 

2.8 
5.3 


*01denburg, No. 3 

Baldwin, No. 1 

Baldwin, No. 2 

Baldwin, No. 3 

Rhode Island Ofreening, No. 1 

Rhode Island Greening, No. 2 

*Titovka 

*Red Astrachan, No. 1 

*Red Astrachan, No. 2 


7.8 

5.09 

5.9 

6.4 

6.1 

6.1 

5.5 

7.4 

5.1 



The following table shows that there is great vari- 
ation in the rate of water loss between twigs of the 
same variety of apple: 







Weight 










Original 


at the ex- 


T OSS 


Per cent 


Average 


Varieties. 


weight. 
Grains. 


piration 

of three 

days. 


Grains. 


of loss. 


per cent 
of loss. 


Baldwin, Twig No. 1 . . . . 


19. 


16.9 


*2.1 


11. 




No. 2.... 


19.425 


17.2 


2.225 


11.4 




No. 3 ... . 


18.9 


16.75 


2.15 


11.3 




No. 4 ... . 


29.25 


26.4 


2.85 


9.74 




No. 5 ... . 


24.2 


21.4 


2.8 


11.5 


10.98 


Oldenburg, No. 1 


31.3 


29.4 


1.9 


6.07 




No. 2 ... . 


34.65 


31.35 


3.3 


9.52 




No. 3 ... . 


15.8 


14.3 


1. 


9.49 




No. 4.... 


28.95 


26.6 


2.35 


8.12 




No. 5.... 


9.5 


8.25 


1.25 


13.1 


9.26 



Evaporation from Trees in Winter. 13 

This subject of moisture loss from dormant trees 
seems to be a most important one, and it is strange 
that the matter seems to have escaped the attention 
of pomologists. In order to spread a knowledge of 
the subject, further studies in the evaporation from 
winter twigs have been made for me by my stu- 
dent, A. L. Knisely, M.S.: 

"In January, 1897, I cut twigs of various kinds 
about one foot in length, and took them to the lab- 
oratory. When ready to weigh the twigs, they were 
cut down to about four or five inches in length, the 
object of the second cutting being to leave as little 
time as possible between the cutting of the twigs and 
the weighing. As soon as the short twigs were cut, 
they were weighed, and the freshly cut ends were 
then dipped in melted paraffine, thus sealing the cut 
surfaces and preventing evaporation except through 
the bark and buds of the twigs. After dipping in 
the paraffine, they were weighed again, and then put 
in places as much exposed as were the trees from 
which they came ; in fact, in some cases, the twigs 
were tied on the trees and left there for 72 hours, 
and then weighed. They were afterward exposed for 
another 72 hours and weighed again, making a total 
length of time of 144 hours, or 6 days, that the twigs 
were exposed. During all this period, the thermome- 
ter registered below the freezing point. That there 
is loss of moisture by evaporation is shown by the 
following table, which gives the data obtained from 
the twigs of a number of our most common fruit 
and shade trees : 



u 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



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statistics of Moisture Loss. 



15 



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16 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

"In observing trees in continuous severe winter 
weather, my attention has often been called to the 
fact that the twigs seem somewhat duller and more 
somber than usual, and in some cases tend to shrivel 
up and have the appearance of drying out. When 
a warm spell comes, this condition changes, and the 
twigs become brighter and seem to freshen up, and 
sometimes I imagine that they become more plump. 
The freshening -up feature is especially noticeable on 
large clumps or groves of willow; the twigs usually 
take on a much brighter color during warm spells 
in winter than during the continued freezing weather. 
During thawing weather, the equilibrium is main- 
tained between the moisture or sap in the tree top 
and that taken in by the roots, and as fast as mois- 
ture evaporates from the tree top, sap flows up from 
the roots and the equilibrium is re-established. In 
freezing weather, the moisture, even though frozen, 
is probably evaporating from the tree tops ; and 
the sap, being frozen, does not flow up from the 
roots and replace the evaporated moisture. Thus 
the equilibrium between the tree tops and roots is 
unbalanced, and it is at this time that the twigs 
become shriveled by reason of moisture being lost 
and not replaced. 

"In support of these statements, I made the fol- 
lowing investigation: After several days of con- 
tinuous freezing weather, and at a time when I 
expected a thaw, I cut twigs of a variety of trees 
and estimated the percentage of moisture contained 
in them. Again, just as soon as a thaw came, I cut 



Amount of Moisfvrf Lost />/ Winffr. 17 

twigs from the same trees and from the same parts 
of the trees, and estimated the percentage of moisture 
again, the object being to determine if the twigs 
contained less moisture after several days of con- 
tinued freezing than they did a short time later, dur- 
ing a thaw. The last two columns of figures in the 
table (pages 14 and 15) are upon this subject. 
The average water content of those twigs cut dur- 
ing a freeze was 47.27 per cent, while that of those 
cut later, during a thaw, was 48.40 per cent, being 
an increase of 1.13 per cent, even though the trees 
had been constantly losing moisture by evaporation. 
Therefore I conclude that during every thaw in 
winter, the tree top fills with sap, and then if a 
sudden severe freeze comes, we are likely to have 
injured trees, due, no doubt, to the sudden freezing 
of the sap, and to the loss of moisture when none 
can be supplied. 

"It will be interesting to calculate what weight 
of moisture a tree may lose in winter. A certain 
soft maple, standing 30 to 35 feet high, with a trunk 
of 15 to 18 inches in diameter near the ground, ex- 
poses from 750 to 800 square feet of surface, and 
loses daily by evaporation from 170 to 180 grams 
of moisture. A given elm tree, 12 to 15 inches in 
diameter at the base, possesses some 300 to 400 
square feet of surface, and loses daily from 70 to 
100 grams of moisture. An apple tree 30 years old, 
with a trunk 15 inches in diameter, with a dense, 
bushy top, possesses approximately from 800 to 1,000 
square feet of surface, and loses daily from 275 to 



18 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

350 grams of moisture." These calculations, there- 
fore, may explain some of the injuries which follow 
very dry winters. 

Since evaporation takes place through the bark 
of winter twigs, it is reasonable to suppose that the 
tenderness of some trees in dry winter climates (as 
in our plains regions) may be due to such an ana- 
tomical structure of the bark as does not resist evap- 
oration, and that, on the other hand, hardiness may 
sometimes be a matter of thickness or denseness of 
bark. Studies in this direction have been made at 
Cornell, and they indicate that this supposition may 
be well founded in certain cases, but the investi- 
gations are not yet sufficiently extended to allow 
of any definite statements. 

The soil determinant. — There are special adaptations 
of fruits to soils. Pomologists are well aware of 
this fact as a general truth, but very little close 
attention has been given, in this country, to the 
minor applications of it. To be explicit, it is well 
understood that pears flourish best on clay, soils and 
peaches best on sandy soils, but there are, no doubt, 
distinct preferences amongst the varieties of pears 
and peaches themselves. It is possible, in fact, that 
each distinct family or type of varieties of any 
species has preferences of land and location, and it 
will be the business of coming generations to de- 
termine what these peculiarities are. With the in- 
creasing refinements and competitions of the future, 
the special and local problems must receive more and 
more attention. If these positions are well taken, it 



Adaptation to Soils. 19 

must follow that the promiscuous aud wholesale dis- 
semination of a few varieties over the country must 
eventually cease, and that local and special sorts 
must constantly tend to drive out the cosmopolitan 
and general varieties. In this country, it is only 
in the strawberry that the peculiarities of adaptation 
of varieties to soils have begun to be well under- 
stood ; and this is rather because the subject is 
forced upon the attention by the short generations 
and constantly shifting plantations of the plant than 
from any investigational motive. 

Many of our fruits are very cosmopolitan as to 
soils, although there are, probablj^ none of them 
which are indifferent to even comparatively minor 
variations in land. Of the temperate fruits, the apple 
undoubtedly has the most generalized adaptabilities to 
soils, and this is closely seconded by the domestic 
plum. Amongst semi-tropical fruits, the orange 
thrives upon a wide range of soils. The peach and 
grape are more exacting, and the same may be said 
of the pineapple amongst semi-tropical fruits. 

Now and then fruits are made to grow in soils 
which are uncongenial to them by working them 
upon adaptive stocks. Thus the plum maj^ thrive 
in sandy regions when it is budded upon the peach, 
the pear is sometimes grown upon very light lands 
by working it upon the mountain ash, and the ma- 
haleb cherry is thought by most persons to be a 
better stock for strong soils than for light ones. 
We may look for the time when certain varieties 
of the same species may be selected as stocks for 



20 The Principles of Fruit -groirinc/. 

given soils. But all this forced adaptation to soils 
is a very special matter, and it only illustrates the 
more strongly the great importance of giving par- 
ticular attention to the general subject of the adap- 
tabilities of species, varieties, and even of strains, 
to variations in soils. 

The parasite determinant. — Inasmuch as many of 
the organisms which seriously interfere with fruit- 
growing are more or less restricted in their range, 
it would seem to follow that the zones of profit- 
able fruit -culture may be determined more or less 
by the parasite factor. A moment's reflection will 
show, however, that the geographical distribution of 
the parasite is determined primarilj' by climate and 
by the distribution of its host -plants; so that, on 
the one hand, the climatal limit of the cultivation 
of the fruit maj^ be approximately the climatal dis- 
tribution of the pest, and, on the other hand, the 
parasite is local or cosmopolitan according as the 
fruit is either local or widely grown. 

Many of the common pests are restricted in range 
because ihej have not yet reached the full limit of 
their distribution. An excellent illustration of this 
fact occurs in the case of the codlin-moth. A 
generation ago, Michigan was represented to be the 
Eutopia of the apple -grower because of the absence 
of this pest, and in our own day similar recommen- 
dations have been made of Oregon and other far 
western states. To the naturalist, however, it was 
evident from the first that the insect was following 
closely behind the apple frontier, as a storm follows 



The Alarm of Insects and Fungi. 21 

an area of high pressure. It is evident, too, that 
no amount of legislative enactment could have stayed 
the dispersion unless it should have forbidden the 
planting of apple trees. 

As a matter of practice, the energetic and intel- 
ligent fruit-grower will think last and least of the 
parasite factor when locating his plantation, for 
this factor is variable and migratory, and, moreover, 
there are means of keeping most fruit pests under 
control. Insects and fungi are apt to be bugbears — 
sometimes literal bugbears — to the fruit-grower; but, 
after all, they are rarely to be counted upon as per- 
manent factors, and they are the direct and perhaps 
the most efficient means of keeping the farmer in a 
state of mental alertness. There are a few cases, of 
course, to which these remarks will not well apply, 
but they are clearly exceptions. One of these is 
the dreaded nematode root -knot of the southern 
states, and one might seriously hesitate in planting 
peaches where the ground does not freeze deep 
enough to destroy the pest. The professional ex- 
perimenters can determine the course of the life- 
histories of the various pests, and can point out 
their most vulnerable points, and may even devise 
general means for their eradication; but the final 
application of this knowledge is a local problem, 
which each man must work out for himself. Laws 
are generally of little avail for the destruction of 
pests, except in those few cases in which disease is 
more or less permanent or perennial, and in which 
there is no practicable recourse but to destroy the 



22 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

plant or the part affected. Such troubles are peach 
yellows, and black -knot of the plum and cherry. A 
law cannot be enforced unless public sentiment is 
behind it, and when public sentiment is aroused the 
law is not needed. Yet a law is often useful for a 
time to awaken public sentiment and to call attention 
to the evil. The final recourse is always greater 
knowledge and enlightenment. 

There are also insurmountable difficulties in the 
enforcement of laws designed to control the spread 
of noxious insects and fungi, because it is practically 
impossible to detect the eggs of insects or spores 
of fungi upon a large number of plants, and because 
there are so many natural and uncontrollable ways 
in which the parasites may spread. The original 
Maryland law, designed to prevent the introduction of 
fruit-tree diseases and pests, was a case in point. 
It required that "whenever any trees, plants or vines 
are shipped into this state from another state, every 
package thereof shall be plainly labeled on the out- 
side with the name of the consignor, and a certifi- 
cate showing that the contents had been inspected 
by a State or Government officer, and that the trees, 
plants or vines therein contained are free from all 
San Jose scale, yellows, rosette and other injurious 
insect or disease." It would be impossible for any 
botanist to certify that a dormant tree were free of 
all disease ; and even in the matter of San Jose 
scale, an entomologist could not give a clean bill 
of health without giving more time to the examina- 
tion of a tree than it is worth. In the operating of 



Laws and Pests. 23 

this law, trees were allowed to pass if an officer certi- 
fied that he had examined them and had found no 
evidence of disease thereon, which is a very different 
matter from asserting that they are free from dis- 
ease, and which is a virtual acknowledgment that 
such provisions of laws really cannot be enforced. 
The best laws of this nature, and for the regulation 
of spraying and the like, are probably those which 
are not mandatory, but which provide a protection 
or a legal remedy in case any person considers him- 
self to be endangered or injured by the perverseness 
or the negligence of another ; and it is a question 
if the common law does not provide ample redress 
for such grievances. There are instances, too, in 
which it may be wise to make a general effort to 
stamp out a pest when it first obtains a foothold in 
America, but this is a very different matter from 
the endeavor to control the spread of insects and 
fungi between the different parts of the country. 
The fact is, that most insects and diseases are beyond 
the reach of legislative fiats, and it is time that the 
fact were fully learned. The demand for functionary 
proceedings against the bugs sometimes recalls the 
laborious efforts of the Middle Ages. "At one time," 
writes Fernald,* "a thoroughgoing procedure, accord- 
ing to all the rules of jurisprudence, occurred before 
the spiritual judge. The accused insects were sum- 
moned, and in case of non-appearance, which always 
occurred, unless the insects were moving to new feed- 

*C. H. Fernald, "The Evolution of Economic Entomology," Proc. Eighth 
Annual Meeting Assoc. Econ. Entomologists, 1896. 



24 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

mg grounds and the court-house happened to be in 
their way, a proxy was appointed to represent the 
accused insects, who debated the whole subject with 
the accuser, after which judgment was rendered, 
invariably against the accused insects in the form 
of an excommunication, which was carried into 
effect only when the insects disappeared at the time 
of pupation." 

The suggestion which Washington is said to 
have made upon the constitution whilst that in- 
strument was under discussion, is not inapplicable 
to the present subject. A clause having been pro- 
posed that the standing army should be limited to 
five thousand men, he suggested that another clause 
be inserted forbidding any foreign power to in- 
vade us with more than three thousand men! 

It is probably advisable to provide for inspection 
of plants at ports of entry, but too much should 
not be expected of such examinations. The exam- 
ination soon comes to be largely a perfunctory 
matter, and the most serious pests may easily slip 
through the hands of officers. It is probable that no 
law could be devised which could have kept the 
codlin-moth, Hessian -fly, gipsy -moth, and a score of 
other pests, out of the country, to say nothing of the 
fungous diseases, which are more difficult to detect. 
Then, again, one can never tell what insects are likely 
to become troublesome upon introduction into a new 
country. Many insects which are comparatively innoc- 
uous in their native country, and against which, there- 
fore, no suspicion exists, may become scourges in an- 



Natural Spread of Insects. 25 

other country. A comparatively harmless insect in 
France becomes the dreaded horn -fly in America. 
Again, the demand for legislation usually arises be- 
cause of the incursion of some new intruder, but a 
pest is commonly worst when newly introduced, 
for, like a prairie fire, it finds its course unimpeded. 
After a time it reaches an approximate limit to its 
furious spread, parasites overtake it, and other pests 
contest its feeding grounds. Nearly all insect pests 
lose much of their terrors after they have once 
ipn over the country. This is admirably illustrated 
in the potato-bug.* In other words, the first ap- 
pearance of a pest in formidable numbers is apt to 
result in a scare, to which, it is to be hoped, the San 
Jose scale, which is now attracting so much atten- 
tion in the east, is no exception. The fact is, 
that insect and fungous pests are inevitable, and 
the farmer can have no peace of mind until he 
accepts the fact, and then resolutely prepares to 
meet them, both by strategy and direct battle. Yet, 
if now and then a serious pest can be kept out of 
the country, even for a few years, by means of in- 
spection upon the frontiers, the effort may be emi- 
nently worth the while. 

* It may as well be said, once for all, that the writer uses the word bus 
for any hard-shelled insect. The entomologist uses it technically for a 
certain classificatory group of insects, and he generally insists that every- 
one else use it in the same way; but it should be remembered that the 
word was a common-language term long before the entomologist impressed 
it into special use. This common usage, therefore, has prior rights; and 
since it is impossible to make people use it in the entomological sense, it 
is plain that the entomologist must be prepared to accept any confusion 
which arises from his use of it. He can probably arrive at his purpose quicker 
and better by using purely t«chnical terms. 



26 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

THE COURSE OF EVOLUTION OF A FRUIT REGION. 

Fruit-growing is usualh' a comparatively late de- 
velopment in any region. The epochs which precede 
the agricultural occupation of a country are com- 
monly about as follows: Discovery, exploration, hunt- 
ing, speculation, lumbering or mining. The real and 
permanent prosperity of a country begins when the 
agriculture has evolved so far as to be self-sustain- 
ing and to leave the soil in constantly better con- 
dition for the growing of plants. Lumbering and 
mining are simply means of utilizing a reserve which 
nature has laid by, and these industries are, therefore, 
self -limited, and are constantly moving on into un- 
robbed territory. Agriculture, when at its best, re- 
mains forever in the same place, and gains in riches 
with the years; but in this country it has so far been 
mostly a species of mining for plant -food, and then 
a rushing on for virgin lands. 

The first effort in an agricultural region is gener- 
ally the growing of the staple crops, like the grains 
or bread-stuffs. This is both because the capabilities 
of the country are all unknown, and because such 
regions are far removed from the markets, and must, 
therefore, grow such commodities as can be stored or 
shipped long distances; and it may be said, also, that 
the growing of these crops in a new country demands 
comparatively little special skill. The second devel- 
opment is very often a stock-raising or grazing in- 
dustry. If the country possesses special adaptabilities 
for fruits, a man here and there will be found en- 



Tlie Commercial Outlook. 27 

/arging his orchards or small-fruit plantations, and 
in time there is a wide -spread revolt from general 
farm practices to fruit-growing. The growing of 
specialties, or perishable products, or those which are 
essentially luxuries, demands the finer skill, the more 
enlightened ideals, and the less fluctuating employ- 
ments of an old or at least of a well -settled coun- 
try; and it is in such areas, too, that the b'^st 
special markets are to be found. It has been the gen- 
eral experience that when any area has fully committed 
itself to the raising of any particular fruit, the busi- 
ness is soon carried too far, and after a time a 
revulsion and contraction have come. The lesson 
is that mixed industries are best for any commu- 
nity, and that it is practically impossible to reduce 
the agriculture of any large region to a dead level 
of uniformity. 

THE OUTLOOK FOR FRUIT-GROWING. 

Two sets of factors chiefly control or determine 
the outlook of the fruit - grower : the personality of 
the grower, and the prospective conditions of the mar- 
ket. Few people appreciate how personal a thing 
success is : yet everyone knows that any two persons 
placed in the same physical and environmental con- 
ditions, and given an equal chance, will arrive at 
very various results in business. The real directive 
forces are matters of character and personality, of 
which the most important requisites seem to be love 
of the occupation, indomitable energy, cool judge- 



28 The Prhiciples of Fruit-growing. 

ment, and sterling honesty. The man should not 
set before himself the single standard of money- 
getting, when entering upon a rural life. The end 
of life is happiness, and it may often be secured 
just as well on a moderate income as on a large 
one. It is pernicious to represent that the farmer 
can become rich, as that term is commonly em- 
ployed. It is one of the blessings which agriculture 
bestows upon both the individual and the nation, 
that it makes its devotees happy and comfortable 
without making them wealthy. Of all the leading 
occupations in which men engage, perhaps there is 
less mere scramble for money in agriculture than 
anywhere else ; and for this very reason the farmer 
must forever remain a stalwart and conservative 
element in our national structure. Farming upon a 
modest scale is capable of yielding a competent in- 
come ; but the larger part of the wealth of the 
small farmer is of a wholly different kind from that 
of the tradesman or manufacturer. 

It is indisputable that there is always a demand 
for the best. There is not enough of the best in 
any commodity. A man cannot make the best unless 
he has ability for it. It is more important, there- 
fore, that the first tillage and fertilizing and prun- 
ing and spraying should be applied to the man and 
not to the land nor the crop ; and whilst the man 
is acquiring discipline for the direct prosecution of 
his business, he is at the same time opening his 
mind to all the sweetest pleasures of living. On 
the other hand, there is always a surplus of the 



Remedy is Diver si fir of I on . 29 

ordinary. In fact, it is the ordinariness of it which 
makes it a surplus. Now, inasmuch as most men are 
ordinary, it follows that most things which they make 
will be ordinary ; and it does not matter if we raise 
the standard of all men, the greater part will still be 
ordinary, for we have only raised the ordinariness of 
the mass. This would seem to argue that the great 
majority of fruit-growers— to specialize the problem 
— can never really succeed. This demands that we 
define what is commonly meant by "the best." That 
kind of fruit usually sells the best of which there is 
the least. It may not be intrinsically the best. It is 
simply that in which there is the least competition. 
The key-note to the business, therefore, is diversifi- 
cation or individuality. The grower should aim to 
have something or to do something which his neigh- 
bors do not do, although it may really not be any 
better than what they do. We are apt tO be discour- 
aged by being told that "there is room at the top," 
for if we all get to the top then we are all on the 
bottom. It is better to say that "there is room at 
che top and on the sides." The best, as commonly 
understood, is really the unlike. 

If every occupation is already full, then it fol- 
lows that the choice of an occupation resolves itself 
into what one cares for and what he has capital 
for. He need have no fear of his success if he 
grows what people want, or puts it up so as to make 
them believe that they want it. In its common 
levels, fruit-growing, like every other business, is 
undoubtedly overdone, and there is only a precarious 



30 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

living in it. This is most emphatically illustrated 
in apple -growing— to which the least skilful attention 
has been given— for the years of crop are years of 
low prices. This means that apple - growers allow 
the seasons and other environmental circumstances 
to absolutely dictate the bearing time of the orchard, 
and when one man has a crop other men may 
have one. Yet there is no fruit which comes so 
near to being a staple commodity as the apple does» 
and none which has a longer market season, or is 
capable of manufacture into a greater number of 
secondary products. 

Perhaps the last thing w^hich the farmer learns, in 
respect to his own business, is to thoroughly maste]- 
his local conditions. He must feel that his problems 
of soil and exposure, his limitations of capital, and his 
own tastes, are all unique and personal, and he must 
then begin to work out his results in his own way. 
What he can learn from books and teachers are 
principles and truths, he can pick up suggestions, 
and he can, al)ove all, acquire an ability to grasp his 
local problems ; but he must solve his problems for 
himself. This is the secret of that close and single- 
minded attention to business which makes for the 
greatest success. 

The most profital)le stock in trade of the fruit- 
grower, therefore, as already indicated, is training ; 
and if a good part of this training is in pure busi- 
ness methods, very much will be gained, for there 
are probably ten men who can grow a given quality 
of fruit where there is one who can sell it to ad van- 



Farming and Business. 31 

tage. All this is proved by the fact that very many 
of our best farmers are men who were not brought 
up on the farm, or who, at least, soon left it for 
other business. Good business men nearly always 
make a success of farming. They come into the 
business with trained minds, skilled judgment, and 
especially without too much stereotyped knowledge, 
and, therefore, without prejudice. They are willing 
to learn, and thej^ quickly assimilate new ideas. It 
sometimes seems as if the farmers of the future are 
to come largely from other occupations, where men 
are free from the bonds of tradition. 

In other words, there are two distinct lines of 
effort in farming : one is farming proper, or the 
growing of crops; and the other is business method, 
which is a matter of executive management. One 
difficulty with agriculture at the present time is the 
fact that every farmer is his own business manager, 
and it is probably true that less than one -fourth of 
the men, taking them as thej^ run, are competent to 
manage a business. When the boys leave the farm 
for the city, they fall under the management of the 
proprietor of an industry or a business, and after a 
time all those individuals who show special aptitude 
for executive business rise to their opportunities, and 
themselves become managers and proprietors. In the 
increasing complication and complexities of the future, 
those farmers who are not good executive business 
men will be obliged to give their attention solely to 
those enterprises to which they are best adapted; so 
that there must gradually come to be a separation be- 



32 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

tween the business of growing fruit and the hnsiness 
of handling and marketing it. 

It may be stated as a general principle that the 
commercial outlook is best in those fruits which 
readily yield themselves to the greatest number of 
secondary or manufactured products, such as canned 
or evaporated goods, jellies and sauces, liquors, oils, 
or other commodities used in the arts. In these 
fruits the grower is not dependent upon a single 
outlet for his crop ; and it should be said that if 
there is but a single important outlet for a fruit, 
that outlet is usually the sale in the fresh state, 
which is the most precarious disposition which can be 
made of perishable products. This truth is well 
illustrated in the eastern grape business. The grape 
is consumed almost wholly as a dessert fruit, the 
only other emphatic outlet being in wine -making, 
which is comparatively unimportant in the east. 
As a consequence, the grower is largelj^ at the 
mercy of the market, and this market may be defi- 
nitely and easily overstocked. In the case of apples 
and peaches, the grower has the alternative of can- 
ning or drying the crop, and he maj% therefore, 
be comparatively independent of the contemporaneous 
market. 

In years of heavy crops the returns from poor 
fruit are the least, and it often happens that the 
only good which comes from such yields is the lesson 
upon the business and the morals of good grading 
and packing; yet even this forceful lesson seems 
either not to reach the major part of fruit -raisers. 



Lesson of the Apple Crop of 1896. 33 

or else it is forgotten before the next year of super- 
fluous yields. The enormous apple crop of 1896 was 
one of these epochs. W. C. Barry* makes the fol- 
lowing remarks upon this crop, quoting at first 
from an English fruit - receiver : " 'In the first place, 
quantities have been far too excessive, and a very 
large proportion of the fruit has been and is of a 
class that prevents rather than favors extended con- 
sumption. With the knowledge of the exceptionally 
abundant crop, we should have thought shippers 
would see the necessity for extra care in selecting 
the fruit, but instead of this, indiscriminate ship- 
ping seems to have been practiced largely, while 
the heavy percentage of faulty conditioned barrels 
indicates that the packing has also been defective.' 
In this way, at home and abroad, the crop was 
practically lost. The outlook is certainly discourag- 
ing, but if we are willing to profit by the experience 
of the year and learn a lesson, it will be of advan- 
tage to us. It must be self-evident that hereafter 
greater care must be exercised in packing, and choicer 
fruit must be selected for both home and foreign 
markets. It will probably be many years until a 
similar crop will ))e produced. In the meantime, 
growers should provide themselves with storage 
houses, where the fruit can be kept till the time 
arrives to market it advantageously. >i^ * * ^s 
the years pass and our experience increases, it be- 
comes evident that a greater variety of products is 
necessary to success. The fruit-grower should en- 

♦ President's Address to Western New York Horticultural Soc, Jan. 27, 1887. 
D 



34 The Principles of Frmf -growing. 

large his sphere of work, and cultivate fruits for the 
various seasons of the year, thus giving employ- 
ment to a regiilar force of hands, who, on account 
of their proficiency, become indispensable on a fruit 
farm. Crops should be anticipated, and markets 
provided just as the manufacturer seeks and secures 
sale for his goods." 

Is there over-production of fruit f — All these re- 
marks bring up the old question as to whether there 
is an over-production of fruit. The probability is 
that there is not an absolute over-production except 
in special years ; that is, that there is not more 
fruit grown than can be consumed in one way or 
another. It is very likely, however, that there is 
frequently a relative over-production, — that there 
is more fruit grown than can be consumed in the 
markets which are ordinarily at the disposal of 
the grower. The difficulty is probably rather more 
one of unequal or imperfect distribution than of 
absolute over-production of the commodity. The 
tendency of the time is to remedy this defect through 
more perfect means of dissemination, but it is too 
much to hope for a perfectly equal distribution of 
fruits, since the fruit areas are more or less limited 
in their geographical distribution, whilst the fruit 
consuming population is distributed far and wide.. 
When there are heavy gluts in some markets and 
fruit does not pay for the freight, there are very 
often other places, a few hundred miles away, in 
which the commodity is scarce. The recent intro- 
duction of special fruit and refrigerator cars has 



The Question of Over-production. 35 

lessened the difficulties of distribution. But the 
reader should be reminded that these appliances are 
of use only to organizations, or to those growers who 
have a large quantity of product; or, at any rate, to 
those localities in which so much fruit is grown that 
the community of interests amounts to an organi- 
zation. 

There can be little doubt that fruit must tend to 
become cheaper rather than higher, except for special 
kinds and special markets, but the cost of producing 
it will grow less at the same time. The fruit-grower 
must acquire the skill to make his plantations bear in 
the years of least heavy crop, and thereby escape, to 
a large extent, the effects of over-production. This 
can certainly be done. The very fact that there are 
years of over-production and under-production shows 
that fruit-growers have not yet mastered the con- 
ditions which control their plantations. In orchards, 
at least, there are more persons who discover their 
crops of fruit than there are who produce them. 
With the cheapening of the product, the demand 
will be increased. The United States now leads 
all countries in the extent, variety, excellence, and 
abundance of fruits, and our people are pronounced 
fruit -consumers : and this desire for fruit is very 
rapidly increasing. In particular fruits, as in grapes 
in the east, the price seems already to have fallen 
to the very lowest point of profitable production, 
and in these cases salvation seems to lie in the 
hunting out of special markets, in devising more 
secondary means of disposing of the product (as in 



36 The Principles of Fruit -groirin{j. 

manufactured goods), and especially in improving- the 
quality of the product and increasing the attractive- 
ness of the packing. 

It is a common practice to estimate the amount 
of fruit which will be produced at any given time in 
the future by multiplying the number of acres of 
plantation by the yield of a normal acre of that kind 
of fruit. The fallacy in these calculations lies in the 
fact that very many of the orchards which are 
planted in hope and expectation yield only bugs and 
fungi. It is probably not too much to say that fully 
half of the fruit plantations which have been set in 
the past fail to produce any crop for the market. 
There are numbers of people who devote their entire 
energies to copjdng their neighbors ; but having no 
original grasp of the sul)ject, they are likely to 
achieve only a haphazard success. 



<fr' 



t^ 



4f^- 



CHAPTER II. 

THE LOCATION AND ITS CLIMATE. 

It is apparent that any advice respecting the 
proper place for engaging in fruit-growing must be 
of the most general nature, since the species of 
fruits are so numerous, and the elements which enter 
into a choice of location and soil are so various and 
indefinable. Yet there are certain considerations 
which are approximately fundamental, and to which 
the reader may profitably give heed. These may be 
found to be suggestive in improving one's practice 
upon his established plantation, as well as useful in 
aiding him in the choice of location and land. 

THE PLACE. 

The choice of the place in which to grow fruit, 
leaving aside the element of soil,* is determined by 
the location and the site. The location is the po- 
sition of the place as fixed by the map or the sur- 
veyor. It is in such and such a township, and lies 
along such and such a highway. It is a matter of 

*The problems comprised in the selection of the proper soil must be de- 
termined for each particular fruit. They are, therefore, special questions, and 
must be treated in the books to be given to the different fruits, and not in a 
general work upon fruit-growing. 

(37) 



38 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

local geography ; it may lie in any one of a thou- 
sand places in the general fruit zones which were 
outlined in the last chapter. The site is the partic- 
ular or actual place, in the location or upon the 
farm, upon which the plantation is set. It comprises 
the aspect as to whether the exposure is towards the 
north or the south, and the consideration of the 
minor elevations and other topographical features of 
the place. To proceed, then, from the general to the 
specific, we may say that a certain fruit plantation 
is located at Willow Creek, in New York, and that 
it has a high site, with a sharp eastward exposure. 

In the choice of a location with reference to its 
geographical position, there are two chief elements 
to be considered, the choice with reference to market 
and that with reference to frosts ; and to these we 
may now proceed. 

Location tvith reference to market. — Time has over- 
come distance. Market facilities are, therefore, de- 
termined more by transportation facilities than by 
nearness to the market itself. To have the choice 
of two or more means of shipping — as by rail or 
water, or by more than one railroad — is a most 
desirable feature in the location of any fruit farm. 
This is not only because competitive rates may be 
secured, but also because more and various markets 
may be reached. The choicer the fruits and the 
greater the desire to reach personal markets, the 
more should the grower prize any means which shall 
enable him to reach a number of markets. Such a 
grower will desire to locate within easy reach of a 



The Market Factor. 39 

number of cities or large towns. He will not care, 
perhaps, to grow what may be called the staple va- 
rieties, leaving that effort to those persons who are 
farther removed from points of consumption. It 
would seem to be unwise, therefore, for the fruit- 
grower who has access to several or many unlike 
markets to attempt to copy the methods of those in 
the west or south, who must grow largely of one 
thing and grow that in sufficient quantity to com- 
mand concessions from transporters and salesmen. 
Fruit-growing can never be reduced to a dead level 
of ideals and practice. In one place great speciali- 
zation may be most profitable, but in another place 
generalization — the extensive growing of general- 
purpose varieties — may be best. 

Location with reference to frosts. — In the last 
chapter, the general influence of cold and heat in 
determining the fruit zones was discussed. At that 
place, the subject was the average annual tempera- 
ture. But within these various zones there are end- 
less minor variations in physiographical features which 
have a direct influence in determining the areas of 
the incidental frosts of late spring and early fall. 
The reader must clearly distinguish between frosts 
and freezes. Frosts occur on still, clear nights, and 
are more or less local ; freezes are usually accom- 
paniments of storms, often of high winds, and are 
general or even continental in range, and their 
courses are not marked by the whiteness of frost. 
It was a freeze, and not a frost, which swept over 
Florida in the winter of 1894-5, and over the north- 



40 The Principles of Frnit -growing. 

eastern states in May, 1895;* and most of the 
serious disasters of untimely cold are of this kind. 
These freezes are mostly beyond the reach of man. 
He can only move beyond their limits. But injuri- 
ous frosts may not only be avoided, in many cases, 
by the selection of the location or even of the site, 
but the^^ maj' sometimes be prevented upon the very 
uight when they are expected. 

The chief local determinant of immunity from 
frost is proximity to bodies of water. These bodies 
act as equalizers of temperature. The water holds 
latent heat, and it does not respond quickly to the 
atmospheric fluctuations. It is, therefore, cooler in 
summer and warmer in winter than the adjacent 
land is. The larger and deeper the body of water, 
the greater is this equalizing effect upon the tem- 
perature of the shores. As between the two, great 
depth is more important than great expanse of sur- 
face. Lakes which are only a mile or two wide may 
exert a very profound influence over the adjacent 

*In order to show the natural history of one of these wide-area freezes, 
the following account is given (by E. T. Turner, Meteorologist of the Weather 
Bureau of the Department of Agriculture of the State of New York) concern- 
ing causes which led to the disastrous cold snap of May 13, 1895, in New 
York state: 

" For about a week preceding the 12th, the temperature had been very high, 
from 80 to 85 degrees in the daytime and from 50 to 60 degrees at night. The 
temperature of the soil must, therefore, have been considerably higher than 
usual at that time of the year. The conditions which produced the freeze 
were very general rather than local. About the 9th, the pressure increased and 
the temperature fell over the western and central parts of the continent. 
Early on the 11th a large low-pressure or storm area passed eastward over 
Canada, southerly winds flowing into it, giving the high temperature observed 
here at noon of the 11th. But after the storm center passed further to the 
eastward we were subject to the cold westerly winds which flowed into the 
depression from the cold high-pressure area in the west, and which continued 



Influence of Bodies of Water. 41 

land if they are very deep. This is admirably illus- 
trated in the slender lakes of central New York,, 
about which the fruit-growing has disposed itself. 
The distance to which the ameliorating influence of 
the water may extend is determined very largely by 
the conformation of the shore lands. As a rule, there 
are distinct slopes towards the water, and it is rare 
that the effect of the water upon the temperature 
extends beyond the crest of the elevation. As a 
matter of fact, when the elevation is three hundred 
feet or more high, the region of immunity from frost 
ordinarily does not extend more than two -thirds of 
the distance to the summit. Along the central New 
York lakes, the area of the tender fruits, like grapes, 
does not reach more than half a mile, and at the 
utmost a mile, from the water. The famous Chau- 
tauqua grape -belt is confined to a strip about two 
to three miles wide lying upon Lake Erie, and reach- 
ing an elevation at its landward margin of less than 

also during the 13th, as the storm center lingered over the northeastern coast. 
The fall of temperature at this Station from noon of the 11th to the 12th was 
40 degrees, and by the 13th, 50 degrees. 

"This cold wave appears to have differed from ordinary frosts in the follow- 
ing particulars : Frosts commonly occur on clear, calm nights, when the cold 
air sinks to the valley bottoms ; but in this case the weather was cloudy or 
partly cloudy, and strong westerly winds prevailed. The valleys, being pro- 
tected from the wind, lost less of the soil warmth stored up during the pre- 
ceding week than the higher and more exposed localities, which suffered most. 
The temperature fell to 32 degrees or below over northern and central New 
York generally on the 11th, 12th and 13th, and probably we were saved from 
disastrous frost in the valleys and sheltered localities only by the warmth of 
the soil. 

" I may add that the high-pressure area in the central states brought severe 
killing frosts near Lake Michigan and the central valleys on the 9th and 10th. 
With us there was the added feature of the high winds, due to the storm area 
as described. " 



42 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

two hundred feet.* Along the eastern shore of Lake 
Michigan, the peach area extends all the way from 
one or two miles to fifteen or twenty, depending 
upon the conformation of the surface. Along the 
lower Hudson River the area of the tender fruits 
does not depart, as a rule, more than a mile from the 
stream. In very gradual slopes, the ameliorating in- 
fluence of the water usually extends farther, but it is 
apt to be less marked than upon the lower parts of 
abrupt slopes. In all these cases, the limit of the 
boundary of the area is determined by two factors, — 
the distance from the water, and the elevation above it. 
Tarr, after studying the local geography of the 
Chautauqua grape country, makes the following ob- 
servations upon the ameliorating influence of Lake 
Erie, and the remarks will apply to most other 
bodies of water: "The lake is a great modifier of 
climate. In the spring, by reason of the low 
temperature of its waters, it holds back the vege- 
tation, and this tends to keep it behind the ordinary 
frosts. Its very presence checks frosts by moderating 
the ' temperature of the neighboring air. In the 
summer, the water tends to cool the air of the day 
and to keep the nocturnal temperature fairly high. 
During the fall, the water has been warmed by the 
summer sun, and the influence of this warm body 
of water lengthens the growing season and tends to 
keep off the early autumn frosts. There are many 
other influences, but nothing of importance can be 

*For a detailed account of the physiography of this region, see R. S. Tarr, 
Bull. 109, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Retardation of Bloom. 43 

stated, excepting on the basis of a careful study 
extending over several years. The lake breeze of 
the day must moderate the daytime temperature; 
and the land breeze of the night may, in some 
cases, so keep the air in motion as to prevent 
frosts. That there is a marked influence upon cli- 
mate as a result of the peculiar conditions of 
topography and neighborhood of water, is evident at 
the very first. Sketch maps show that the mean 
annual rainfall is greater on the escarpment than on 
the lake plain, and that the mean annual tempera- 
ture of the hills is lower than that near the lake." 

The particular influence which the water exerts 
over frost injury in spring is often due more to the 
retardation of the period of bloom than to the actual 
prevention of frost, although its influence in the 
latter direction is important. The lands adjacent to 
the water ordinarily warm up later in spring, and 
the trees are not likely, therefore, to swell their buds 
until danger of serious frosts is past. The amount 
of this retardation of bloom is often as great as 
ten to twenty days within a stretch of fifteen or 
twenty miles from a large body of water. It is well 
known that the danger from frosts is greatest in, 
mild climates, in which "warm spells" are likely to 
occur in late winter or early spring. In the central 
and southern states, this frost injury following a 
period of warm weather is commoner than true 
winter -killing, whilst in the northernmost states and 
Canada serious injury to the trees from late spring 
frosts is comparatively infrequent. In the northern 



44 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

states, also, the plant goes into the winter in a 
perfectly dormant and ripened condition, and is 
thereby able to withstand great cold. It has been 
said that injnry from cold is more frequent in 
the Gulf states than in New York. 

The elevation of any place also stands in close 
relation to the frostiness of it. Perfectly flat lands 
are nearly always frosty, because there is no atmos- 
pheric drainage, a subject to which we shall soon 
recur. On the other hand, very high lands are also 
frosty, because the air is drier and rarer, and there- 
fore allows of rapid radiation of heat from the 
land; and they are exposed to cold, unbroken winds. 
The local altitude to which the fruit lands may be 
carried can be determined only by actual experiment; 
but in the north the best elevations for the ten- 
der fruits are usually between 100 and 300 feet 
above the local rivers or lakes. 

Whilst it is extremely important that the loca- 
tion for the growing of tender or early -blooming 
fruit should be selected with reference to its im- 
munity from disastrous winter temperatures and un- 
timely frosts, it should also be said that climate is 
often held responsible for failures which are charge- 
able to ignorance or neglect. This is particularly 
well illustrated in the perishing peach -growing of 
some parts of the north. It is a common complaint 
that peaches cannot be grown so easily as formerly. 
The writer has investigated this matter upon the 
eastern shore of Cayuga Lake, in central New York.* 



*BuU. 74, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Decline of Peach -growing. 45 

a region which may be considered to be typical of 
the complaint that peaches are now particularly diffi- 
cult to raise. "There are many theories to account 
for this failure. Oftenest, perhaps, it is attributed to 
change of climate, but we have no proof that any 
considerable climatic change has occurred, while it 
seems to be true that the northern peach frontier is 
holding its own, or is even advancing. In New York 
the failure is often attributed to yellows, that disease 
which seems to exist as a vague and indefinable 
alarm in the minds of the general agricultural popu- 
lation. Yellows and increasingly rigorous climate are 
said to have wiped out the peach growing of the 
Cayuga belt. Twenty years ago a million peach 
trees, it is said, could be seen upon the eastern shore 
from one point upon the west side, but now there 
are only a few scattered orchards. Here, then, may 
be found the secret of this strange falling off of the 
peach trees in all parts of the country in these recent 
years. 

"Slanting towards the lake and pouring into it 
their drainage of water and cold air, laterally drained 
])y deep ravines and protected from sweeping winds 
by lines of wood, these Cayuga lands seem to be ad- 
mirably adapted to the peach. But the region had 
never been a peach belt, in the sense in which that 
term will apply to the best part of the Niagara dis- 
trict, or to the Lake Michigan belt, or the areas in 
more southern states. In other words, peaches had 
never been a leading industry there, but the orchards 
had been planted here and there near the lake as a 



46 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

very minor appendage to the general farming. For a 
generation or two of trees the insect pests were not 
common. There were no good markets, and the fruit 
sold as low as twenty -five cents a bushel from the 
wagon -box. In fact, it was grown more for the 
home supplj- than with an idea of shipping it to 
market. Under such conditions, it did not matter if 
half the crop was wormy, or if many trees failed and 
died each year. Such facts often passed almost un- 
noticed. The trees bore well, to be sure, but the 
crop was not measured up in baskets and accounted 
for in dollars and cents, and under such conditions 
only the most productive trees left their impress upon 
the memory. The soils had not undergone such a 
long system of robbery then as now. When the old 
orchards wore out, there was no particular incentive 
to plant more, for there was little money in them. 
Often the young and energetic men had gone west, 
there to repeat the histor^^ perhaps, and the old 
people did not care to set orchards. And upon this 
contracting area, all the borers and other pests which 
had been bred in the many old orchards now concen- 
trated their energies, until they have left scarcely 
enough trees in some localities upon which to perpet- 
uate their kind. A new country or a new industry is 
generally free of serious attacks of those insects 
which follow the crop in older communities. But the 
foes come in unnoticed and for a time spread unmo- 
lested, when finally, perhaps almost suddenly, their 
number becomes so great that they threaten destruc- 
tion, and the farmer looks on in amazement. 



Why Peach Orchards Fail, 47 

"The cause of the failure of these early orchards, 
therefore, is the gradual dying out of the old system 
of agriculture and the coming in of special indus- 
tries. The methods followed with success a gene- 
ration and more ago are not profitable in the 
sharper competitions of the present time. At least, 
there is not the smallest evidence that there is any 
unusual or insurmountable difficulty in the way of 
peach growing in this once famous Cayuga region. 
The climate may be somewhat more bleak, but this 
difficulty may be lessened by the planting of shelter- 
belts; and there are enough protected places in which 
winds are not unusually severe. What yellows exists 
seems to have come in very recentl3^ Good culti- 
vation and attention to borers, and the other diffi- 
culties to which peaches are everywhere subject, will 
enable the people in that region to grow better 
orchards than were grown there in former times. 
This statement is proved by the partial success 
which is even now attending those parts of the seven 
remaining orchards which are receiving as much as 
indifferent care." 

Winds and air -currents in relation to fruit-grow- 
ing. — It is necessary that more specific attention be 
given to the subject of winds and currents of air, 
an inquiry which is suggested by the preceding re- 
marks. There are the most various and contra- 
dictory opinions amongst fruit-growers as to the 
influence of winds upon fruit plantations. It is 
commonly admitted that high or rolling lands are 
best suited to most fruits, and many growers sup- 



48 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

pose that the reason of it is that winds there find 
free course. The truth is, however, that several 
features conspire to render these lands congenial to 
fruits. Some of these characteristics are the follow- 
ing : Good atmospheric drainage ; the avoidance of 
still air in frosty weather ; good water drainage ; 
earliness or lateness, according as they are southward 
or northward exposures. High or strong winds are 
always to be avoided, if possible, for thej^ blow off 
the fruit and injure the plants. 

As a rule, winds are beneficial to fruit planta- 
tions only when they bring warmer air, or when 
they keep the air in motion in frosty weather. If, 
therefore, high lands could be protected from winds 
without endangering atmospheric drainage or expos- 
ing the plantation to frost, much should be gained. 

In dry regions there is a special reason for de- 
siring to abate the winds, from the fact that they 
abstract so much moisture from soil and plants. 
Even a slight impediment in the path of the wind 
may give marked results in the conservation of 
moisture. Upon this point, King* writes as follows: 

"In arid or semi-arid countries, and in districts 
where the soil is light and leachy, but especially 
where there are large tracts of land whose inco- 
herent soils suffer from the drifting action of winds, 
it is important that the velocity of the winds near 
the ground should be reduced to the minimum. 
We have in Wisconsin extensive areas of light lands 
which are now being developed for purposes of 

»Th« Soil. 204. 



Land Covers to Conservp Moisture. 49 

potato culture; but while these lands are giving fair 
yields of potatoes of good quality, they are in many 
places suffering great injury from the destructive 
effects of w^inds. On these lands, wherever broad, 
open fields lie unprotected by wind-breaks of any 
sort, the clearing west and northwest winds after 
storms often sweep entirely awaj- crops of grain after 
they are 4 inches high, uncovering the roots by the 
removal of from 1 to 3 inches of the surface soil. 
It has been observed, however, that such slight bar- 
riers as fences and even fields of grass afford a 
marked protection against drifting for several hun- 
dred feet to the leeward of them. 

"In the case of groves, hedge -rows and fields of 
grass, their protection results partly through their 
tendency to render the air which passes across them 
cooler and more moist, and partly by diminishing 
the surface velocity of the wind. The writer has 
observed that when the rate of evaporation at 20, 
40 and 60 feet to the leeward of a grove of black 
oak 15 to 20 feet high was 11.5 cc, 11.6 cc, and 
11.9 cc, respectively, from a wet surface of 27 
square inches, it was 14.5, 14.2 and 14.7 at 280, 
300 and 320 feet distance, or 24 per cent greater 
at the three outer stations than at the nearer ones. 
So, too, a scanty hedge -row produced observed dif- 
ferences in the rate of evaporation, as follows, dur- 
ing an interval of one hour: 

"At 20 feet ^om the hedgerow the evaporation was 10.3 cc. 
'' 150 '' " " " " " " 12.5 " 

« 300 " " " " «' " '« 13.4 *' 

E 



50 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

"Here the drying effect of the wind at 300 feet 
\vas 30 per cent greater than at 20 feet, and 7 per 
cent greater than at 150 feet from the hedge. 

"When the air came across a clover field 780 
feet wide, the observed rates of evaporation were: 

"At 20 feet from clover 9.3 cc. 

" 150 " " " 12.1 " 

"300 " " " 13. " 

or 40 per cent greater at 300 feet away than at 
20 feet, and 7.4 per cent greater than at 150 feet. 

"The protective influence of grass lands and the 
disadvantage of very broad fields of these light soils 
was further shown by the increasingly poorer stand 
of young clover as the eastern margin of these 
fields was approached, even on fields where the 
drifting had been inappreciable. Below are given 
the number of clover plants per equal areas on 
three different farms, as the distance to the east- 
ward of grass fields increased: 

"No 1, at 50 feet, 574 plants ; at 200 feet, 390 plants ; at 400 feet, 
231 plants. 

"No 2, at 100 feet, 249 plants ; at 200 feet, 277 plants ; at 400 feet, 
193 plants ; at 600 feet, 189 plants ; at 800 feet, 138 plants ; at 1,000 
feet, 48 plants. 

"No. 3, at 50 feet, 1.130 plants ; at 400 feet, 600 plants; at 700 
feet, 543 plants. 

"In these cases the difference in stand appears 
to have resulted from an increasing drying action 
of the wind. On the majority of fields the de- 
structive effects of the winds were very evident to 



Uses of Loiv Wind-hreahs. 51 

the eye, and augmented as the distance from the 
wind - breaks increased . 

"It appears from these observations, and from the 
protection against drifting which is afforded by grass 
fields, hedge -rows and groves, that a system of ro- 
tation should be followed on such lands which 
avoids broad, continuous fields. The fields should 
be laid out in narrow lands, and alternate ones kept 
in clover and grass. Wind-breaks of suitable trees 
must also have a beneficial effect when maintained 
in narrow belts along line fences and railroads, and, 
perhaps, wagon roads, in places." 

Budd writes* as follows respecting the low wind- 
breaks of Manitoba: ''Professor N. E. Hansen and 
others recently made a trip to Indian Head and 
Brandon. He was surprised to find miles of low 
wind-break not over five or six feet in height to stop 
the sweep of the wind on the surface of the earth. 
These low hedges are made by planting the shrubbj" 
artemisia. This grows readily from cuttings stuck in 
early spring, and soon attains its final height. It is 
really proving a blessing in that land of winds, 
where even the wheat is blown out of the ground 
if the wind is permitted to hug the earth's surface. 
We found this a common shrub on the steppes of 
central Russia, and introduced it as an ornamental 
plant. The thought did not occur that it would 
become the most popular wind-break of the wheat 
districts of Manitoba and Northwest Territory." 

Atmospheric drainage. — The air is rarely, if ever, 

* Rural Life, 1896. 



52 The PrincipUs of Fruit-growing. 

perfectly still. This is well illustrated in the vagaries 
of light frosts, which touch here and there where the 
air is the stillest or the radiation most rapid. This 
is particularly true in the growing months, when the 
earth becomes very warm during the day and loses 
the heat rapidly at nightfall, and when, also, the 
sky is less overcast by clouds than it is in the win- 
ter months. After stndying the disastrous frosts of 
May, 1895, in the Chautauqua vineyard district, 
Tarr wrote* as follows : " The behavior of this frost 
was altogether remarkable, leaving some districts or 
vineyards almost unharmed, and nearly ruining the 
crop in others, while even in the same vineyard these 
extremes were sometimes noticed. This was probably 
chiefly due to eddies of the air, for even though air 
is almost quiet, it is still in uneven motion. One 
may see this illustrated on a calm day by noticing 
the movements of a column of smoke. The air, be- 
ing invisible, does not reveal these movements, and 
we become aware of them only when the conditions 
are exceptional, as when a frost is dealing out de- 
struction to vegetation. The condition of the ground 
also affects the frost, and the question whether it is 
dry or moist, freshly plowed or turf covered, whether 
there are trees or pastures or plowed ground in the 
neighborhood, all have their influence ; but this sub- 
ject has never been properly studied, and it is not 
possible to state just how these differences affect 
frost action." 

Much of this unrecognizable movement of the air 

* Bull. 109. Cornell Exp. Sta., 121. 



Air Drainage on a Hillside. 53 

is due to the draining off or settling away of the 
cold air, which is densest, and therefore heaviest. 
It pours down the valleys of hilly and mountainous 
countries, and as its vapor condenses it gives rise to 
the valley fogs and clouds. It lies in the low places 
upon the farm, and there may cause frost. A person 
riding across an undulating countrj^ upon a still sum- 
mer night can scarcely fail to notice the chillier air 
of the depressions. This escape of the 'cold air is 
the secret of much of the success of fruit-growing 
on rolling and sloping land ; and this fact explains 




Fig. 1. The frosty belt Vjelow a wood upon a hillside. 

the importance of giving great attention to the selec- 
tion of the site and aspect when setting a planta- 
tion of the tenderer fruits. 

Features of such little apparent importance as 
not to appeal to the fruit-grower often exert great 
influence upon the quiet movements of air. A fre- 
quent case is this : A strawberry field is upon a 
gentle slope, and on the upper side is a wood. In 
time of frost, the only injury occurs in a belt two 
or three rods wide just against the wood, m the 
very place where the greatest immunity was ex- 
pected. This is because the slight bodily movement 
of the air down the hillside and over the forest 



54 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

strikes obliquely downward from the edge of the 
wood -top, and leaves a narrrow belt of dead air 
against the timber (as at A in Fig. 1, page 53.) 

The atmospheric drainage is marked only in still 
air. Winds mix up the air, and bring it all to a 
comparatively uniform condition. The slightest ob- 
stacles may sufficiently retard the movement to leave 
their impress in the distribution of a light frost. A 
rail fence, a stone wall, a row of bushes, a slight 
elevation of land, the earth thrown out of a ditch, — 
all of these are obstacles to drainage of cold air 
when they extend across a slope. In some cases, 
there may be a difference of ten degrees in tempera- 
ture in as manj^ feet of elevation. A dense row of 
trees standing diagonally across a slope may convey 
away the cold air which settles down against it, 
and thereby prevent injury to plants on the lower 
levels. It has been suggested that in certain hilly 
regions, levees a few feet high be built diagonally 
across the slopes, with ditches or moats above them 
to hold water, the evaporation of which would tend 
to raise the dew-point. 

The range of elevation through which atmos- 
pheric drainage acts beneficially to the fruit-grower 
is limited. A fall of a few feet in a plantation is 
often sufficient for the very best protection from 
light frosts ; and a fall of one or two hundred feet 
may be regarded as the general maximum through- 
out which the benefit may be observed, for very 
high elevations are, as we have seen, bleaker and 
colder in sum -temperature than comparatively low 



Temperahires on Hills. 



55 





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56 TliP Prinriplfs of Fruit-growing. 

ones are. That is, what may be gained by atmos- 
pheric, drainage may be more than overcome by the 
eoklness of elevation. The table (page 55) from the 
New York Meteorological Burean*, compares the 
monthly average temperatures of high and low sta- 
tions. The high stations give, with but two slight 
exceptions, a lower reading than the low stations do, 
but the differences are least, as a rule, in the win- 
ter months, when the effects of atmospheric drainage 
are apt to be least marked. 

Thermometer readings taken upon the slope of 
East Hill, at Ithaca, New York, during January and 
February, 1897, also show the lower average tempera- 
tures of very high lands. t The top of this hill is 
about 400 feet above the valley. Six thermometers 
were placed along its slope. No. I. being at the 
foot of the hill, and No. VI. at its top. Tempera- 
tures taken at night would probably have shown 
more marked differences. It is probable, however, 
that if observations were made at night -in still wea- 
ther in spring or fall, between the valley and lands 
from fifty to one hundred feet above it, the higher 
lands would have given the higher figures, in con- 
sequence of the settling away of the cold air. It 
is well known, for example, that ravines along a fruit 
plantation often carry away the cold air and save 
the fruit from light frosts, and also that planta- 
tions opposite the mouths of gullies are likely to 
suffer. The Ithaca figures now follow: 

* Fifth Ann. Rep. Meteor. Bureau, N. Y. 388. 
t Made for me by my student, S. L. Sheldon. 



Temperatures on a Hillside. 



57 



Date, 

1897. 


Hour. 


1 

Ther. 
I. 


i Ther. 
II. 


Ther. 
III. 


Ther. 
IV. 


Ther. 
V. 

1 Deg. 
28 


1 
] 

Ther. 

VI. 


li 
II 


11 

i Or-" 

s 


i; 


Jan. 22.. 


A. M. 

I 8.40 


"a- 


Deg. 
27 


Deg. 

28 


Deg. 
25 


Deg 

3 


sw 


10 


" 23.. 


P. M. 

12.25 


26 


24 


25 


23 


22 


23 


4 


w 


20 


" 25.. 
" 27.. 


' p. M. 

2.15 

A. M. 

8.45 


10 

I 

13 


8 
12 


9 
13 


7 
13 


6 
12 


8 
13 


4 

1 


w 
w 


30 
1 


Feb. 3.. 


A. M. 

8.20 


20 
31 


20 


21 


20 


20 


20 


1 


NW 


5 


" 4.. 


A. M. 

11.45 


26 


28 


27 


31 


27 


5 


N 


2 


4.. 


p. M. 

5.45 


25 


24 


24 


24 


25 


27 


3 


NW 


2 


" 6.. 


A. M. 

9.00 


35 


35 


35 


36 


35 


33 


1 


SE 


13 


" 8.. 


A. M. 

8.00 


37 


33 


33 


33 


32 


33 


4 


1 ■ 
W i 4 


•' 9.. 


A.M. 

8.00 


31 


29 


29 


28 


28 


28 


3 

4 


W 5 


" 22.. 


A. M. 

8.00 


33 


31 


32 


34 


34 


30 


SE 


2 


" 23.. 


A. M. 

9.00 


38 


35 


35 


36 




34 


4 


SW 


12 


" 24.. 


A. M. 

8.30 


25 


21 


22 


21 


22 


21 


4 


sw 


8 


" 26.. 


A. M. 

8.15 


19 


13 


17 


14 


14 


14 


5 


w 


10 


" 27.. 


A. M. 

8.30 


17 


14 


16 


14 


15 


13 


4 
4 


w 


4 


Mar. 1.. 


A. M. 

8.30 


16 


13 


14 


13 


16 


12 


SE 


12 


Average t 


emp. 


25.25 


22.81 


23.75 


23.18 


22.66 


22.56 


2.69 







58 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

THE SITE FOR THE FRUIT PLANTATION. 

As a rule, especially in northern countries, the 
ideal site for a fruit plantation is one which is 
somewhat elevated above adjoining lands. Such a 
site presents the two advantages of atmospheric and 
soil drainage. Of these advantages, the atmospheric 
drainage is the greater, inasmuch as soil drainage 
can be secured hy artificial means. Cold air, being 
heavier than warm air, in still weather settles into 
the lowest areas, as we have already seen, often 
causing, upon such lands, serious late spring and 
early fall frosts, as well as reducing the temperature 
in winter. In speaking of elevated lands, it is not 
necessarily meant that they be rolling. Some entire 
farms which are almost fiat may be sufficiently ele- 
vated above the local streams or the general con- 
tour of a flat country to answer all purposes of an 
ideal fruit site. 

A comparatively slight elevation is often suffi- 
cient to accomplish perfect atmospheric drainage, 
particularly if the adjacent lower lands slope suffi- 
ciently to allow the cold air to gradually drain away. 
Sometimes a sharp decline of ten or fifteen feet 
along one side of a plantation is sufficient; or, a 
gradual and gentle slope throughout may be equally 
advantageous. More pronounced elevations usually 
give more marked results, however, and for this 
reason they are preferred for the tenderer fruits. 

The pronounced minor elevations often present 
other advantages of temperature than those incident 



Advantages of High Lands. 59 

to atmospheric drainage. They offer various expo- 
sures, and they may be utilized as wind-breaks by 
placing the plantations on the slopes opposite the 
severest winds. If they are near large bodies of 
water, they are usually more profoundly influenced by 
such bodies than flatter lands, because more open to 
the movements of air from them; and as bodies of 
water tend to equalize temperature, to lessen late 
spring and early fall frosts, it follows that high lands 
near lakes and great rivers are most desirable for 
fruit - culture . The exact amount of exposure which 
the fruit-grower may find advantageous must be de- 
termined for each individual case after a thorough 
study of all the local conditions; and in this inves- 
tigation the discussion of wind-breaks, beginning on 
page 62, may be suggestive. 

Despite all these remarks, there are certain cases 
in which comparatively low lands are preferable for 
fruit -raising, but this is because such lands are 
moister, richer, leveler, or more sheltered, rather than 
because they are lower than surrounding areas; for 
all these advantages may sometimes be secured on 
comparatively elevated lands, and atmospheric drain- 
age be secured in the bargain. Strawberries are 
grown on lower lands largely because such lands are 
moist and level. Quinces and blackberries demand a 
moister land than is usually found upon pronounced 
slopes. In any event, however, the grower should 
avoid flat lands which are hemmed in on all sides 
by elevations, for these " pockets " are nearly always 
frosty. 



60 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

The aspect. — The aspect or exposure of a fruit 
plantation is determined by the direction and extent 
of tne slope of the land. The exposure exerts 
great influence upon the temperature of the soil and 
upon the force of the winds, and it therefore be- 
comes an emphatic problem in the location of a 
fruit plantation, especially when the tender and early- 
blooming fruits are under consideration. There is 
the greatest diversity of opinion respecting the 
proper exposure for fruits, some growers contending 
that the northward slope is always the best, and 
others preferring a southward exposure. The truth 
is that no one exposure is best in all cases. Much 
depends upon the location and the particular en- 
vironment of the plantation, and upon the kind of 
fruit which it is proposed to grow. The subject 
may be elucidated by discussing it under three 
generalizations : 

1. In locations adjoining bodies of water, the 
best slope is towards the water. The very reason 
for the location of fruit farms in such places is 
that the ameliorating effects of the water may be 
secured, and these effects are most marked when 
the fruit land slopes directly towards the river or 
the lake. In all these cases, therefore, the par- 
ticular direction of the slope in respect to the 
points of the compass is of a very secondary im- 
portance. There is often great choice between the 
two sides of a river or small lake, particularly 
when the slopes are sharp and high. That side 
which faces away from strong prevailing winds is 



The Choice of the Exposure. 61 

generally preferable, particularly if the elevation back 
of it is sufficient to act as a wind-break. 

2. In interior or frosty regions, the best slope 
for the tender and early -blooming fruits, as a rule, 
is one which retards the blooming period, thereby 
causing the plant to remain comparatively dormant 
until after the incidental spring frosts are passed. 
In such places, therefore, the northward and west- 
ward slopes are generally most advisable; although 
if these slopes are too pronounced, they may be so 
very cold and backward that what is gained by the 
retardation in spring may be lost by the retardation 
in fall, and the fruits may fail to ripen properly, 
or be caught by early fall frosts. In wholly interior 
places, a somewhat pronounced northward exposure 
is usually preferable for peaches and apricots, since 
these fruits are likely to swell their buds with the 
first fitful warmth of spring 

3. If one desires to secure particulai'ly early re- 
sults and bright colors of fruits, a warm and sunny 
epxosure, to the southward or southeastward, is most 
advisable. This is a matter of considerable mo- 
ment with the finer dessert varieties of fruits. 

It is sometimes necessaiy, also, to study the ex- 
posure with reference to prevailing winds, when 
these winds are more or less constant and strong. 
The selection of the aspect may, in a large meas- 
ure, obviate the necessity of establishin-g elaborate 
wind-breaks. The contour of the land should always 
be carefully considered when the planting of shelter 
belts is under advisement. 



62 The FHnciples of Fruit -(/rowing. 

WIND-BREAKS FOR FRUIT PLANTATIONS.* 

We are now able to approach the troubled sub- 
ject of wind-breaks in an analytic spirit. Although 
the best writers upon horticultural topics are nearly 
unanimous in recommending wind-breaks for all fruit 
plantations, there is, nevertheless, wide difference in 
opinion and practice among good cultivators con- 
iteming them. Fruit-growers, as a rule, hold decide^ 
opinions concerning wind-breaks. In fact, they usu- 
ally hold extreme opinions, either wholly opposing 
shelter belts in all cases, or positively advocating 
them. All who are engaged in the growing of 
fruits or who attend fruit-growers' gatherings, have 
heard the most positive experiences cited in support 
of both opinions. Theve must be good reasons for 
these opposing views. There appear to be no well- 
grounded maxims or precepts among growers them- 
selves, and statements concerning the merits of 
shelter belts are commonly vague. In order to arrive 
at the best current opinion upon the subject, many 
inquiries have been made and fruit farms have been 
visited. Three hundred circulars were addressed to 
leading fruit-growers in New York and Michigan, 
asking for definite information in regard to wind- 
breaks. Seventy -seven replies were obtained. This 
is a large proportion, and the number may be as- 
sumed to include all the persons of the three hun- 

*This discussion is founded upon the author's "Study of Wind-breaks in 
Their Relations to Fruit-growing," Biill. IX., Cornell Exp. Sta. (1889); also 
"Wind-breaks for the Fruit-grower," Proe. Mich. Forestry Conv., held at 
Grand Rapids, Jan. 26 and 27, 1888. 



Benefits from Wind -breaks. 63 

dred addressed who have had experience, or have 
made direct observation. Forty -eight of these replies 
relate definite results. It is probable that nearly the 
whole range of experience with wind-breaks in 
reference to fruit -culture in the northeastern states 
is represented in these letters. Two general cate- 
gories may be made, — those favoring the use of 
wind-breaks for fruit plantations, and those op- 
posing them. Each of these categories may be again 
divided into replies relating definite experience, and 
those detailing only general observation or opinion. 

An epitome of the benefits reported in the ta- 
bles on pages 64-68 may be made as follows (stated 
somewhat in order of importance) : 

1. A wind-break may protect from cold. 

2. Reduces evaporation from the surface of the 
soil, tending to mitigate drought in summer and 
root injury in winter. 

3. Lessens windfalls. 

4. Lessens breaking of trees laden with fruit or ice. 

5. Retains snow and leaves, thus tending to pre- 
vent deep freezing and excessive evaporation. 

6. Facilitates labor in the fruit plantation. 

7. Protects blossoms from severe winds. 

8. Enables trees to grow straighter. 

9. Reduces injury from the drying of small 
f raits on the plants. 

10. Holds the sand in certain sections. 

11. Sometimes causes fruits to ripen earlier, 

12. Encourages birds. 

13. It can be made an ornament. 



64 



The Principles of Fridt-growiyig. 



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Experiences ivith Wrtul-hnaks. 65 



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66 



The Principles of Fruit -gr owing . 






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Experiences ivith Win d - breaks . 



67 



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68 



The Principh's of Fmit-orou'ing. 



BENEFITS OBSERVED. 


Fewer wind-falls ; " some years, 
more than one-half the entire crop" 
blowing oft" in exposed orch'ds ; while 
few blow off in those well protected. 

Fewer wind-falls. 

"Where the wind is very severe, a 
wind-break on the north and west 
would be very valuable." 

Fewer wind-falls. High ground on 
the west is " qxiite important in many 
respects." 

Prevents tlie blowing off of snow and 
sand. 

"If all our highways were bordered 
with good rows of trees, we should 
find much advantage from them." 




Forests and arti- 
ficial shelter belts. 

Norway spruce 
hedge. 

Natitral timber. 

In general . 

Evergreen hedge. 
Street trees. 


Kinds of fruit 
observed. 


Apples and 
pears. 

Pears, apples, 
cherries and 
plums. 

In general. 

Do. 

• 
Peaches. 

General. 


Location in refer- 
ence to large 
bodies of 
water. 


Very near L. 
Ontario. 

About 10 m. 
south of Lake 
Ontario. 

3 m. west of 
Seneca Lake. 

North end of 
Seneca Lake. 

On east shore 
of Lake Mich-, 
igan. 

Do. 


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N.W. 

N.W. 

W.SW. 
W. SW. 


Site and soil. 


In general. 

Clay loam. 

In general. 

Do. 

High. Sandy. 
In general. 


1 -aaAHasao 


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Injuries from Wind -breaks. 



69 



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70 



The Principles of Fruif-r/mwing. 



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Fruit more wormy. 

" Late spring frosts do far more damage to grapes, 
peaches, etc., in a protected location than where the 
wind has free play." 


■si's 

•2.S£: 


In general. 
Do. 




Apples and 
peaches. 

In general. 


Location in refer- 
ence to large 
bodies of 
water. 


On Niagara 
R. about 8 m. 
So. Lake Ont. 

On N. end of 
Lake Skane- 
ateles. 


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Site and soil. 


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Injuries from Wind-breaks. 71 

Epitome of injuries from wind-breaks (pp. 69, 70): 

1. A wind-break may render a plantation colder 
at certain times. 

2. Fruit immediately adjoining the wind-break is 
apt to be much injured by insects and diseases, and 
to be small and inferior in color. 

3. Trees immediately adjoining the wind-break 
are often less thrifty than others. 

4. There may be greater damage from late spring 
frosts in sheltered plantations. 

Statements of authors. — In connection with the 
foregoing reports, it will be well to review the 
statements of various writers respecting the use of 
wind-breaks: 

It [the fruit garden] should be screened on the north and the 
east, either by high walls and fences, or, what is far better, either 
by hills or a deep and dense border of evergreen or other forest 
trees, intermixed with fruit trees and shrubs of ornament. — Ke7i- 
rick, New American Orchardist, IX. {1832). 

As our native forests become cleared away the climate is 
changed and becomes more harsh ; hence it is found desirable 
to construct some kind of protection from the point of most 
destructive harsh winds and storms. Belts of trees, either ever- 
green or deciduous, or both mixed, and surrounding or placed so 
as to screen from the northeast, north and northwest, are con- 
sidered highly advantageous. — Downing, Fruits and Fruit Trees of 
America, 54. 

The atmospheric changes and conditions we cannot control, 
and we can modify them only in a very limited degree, by 
hedges, by timber belts, and by evergreen screens, the value of 
which begins to be appreciated. — Warder, American Pomology, 
207. 



72 The Principles of Fruit -grotving. 

In localities exposed to the sweep of winter winds, belts of 
evergreen or deciduous trees will be found of great service. In 
all instances where the side of an orchard exposed to the pre- 
vailing winds is less successful and productive than the opposite 
side, proof is afforded that shelter would be beneficial ; belts, 
especially if of deciduous trees, standing too near fruit trees, have, 
however, rather injured than benefited them. The orchard should 
be beyond the reach of their shade and roots, and be well ex- 
posed to sun and air. — Thomas, Fruit Culturist, new ed., 48. 

If possible, a situation should be chosen where some natural 
obstacle, as a hill, or a belt of woods, would break the force 
and influence of these destructive winds. Where no such ob- 
stacle naturally exists, a belt or border of rapidly growing trees 
* -St * * should be planted simultaneously with the planting 
of the orchard. ^ * * ^ Instances occur every year in our 
own section where sheltered orchards bear full crops, whilst 
those fully exposed to the winds fail entirely. — Barry, Fruit Gar- 
den, new ed., 176. 

Although having an orchard closely pent up by trees, etc., is 
injurious, nevertheless a screen of forest trees, at such distance 
from the fruit trees as that the latter will not be shaded by 
them, is of very great service in protecting the trees in spring 
from severe cold winds. — Bridgeman, Gardener'' s Assistant, hy 
Todd, II., 39. 

A few orchards, in specially bleak situations, need protection 
from winter winds, but all orchards need wind-breaks toward 
picking time. The damage done in exposed orchards by the 
blowing off of fruit before it is reached by the pickers may 
amount to 50 per cent of the entire value of the crop, or even 
more. Belts of natural timber furnish most protection ; but they 
are apt to be the breeding grounds of noxious insects. A thick 
row of arbor vitae (white cedar), like that shown in Fig. 2, is 
easily grown, and furnishes ample protection. This occupies 
some land, however, and such dense belts of evergreens inter- 
fere seriously with atmospheric drainage (the rapid evening flow 
of cold air off the land to lower ground) . This is a most impor- 



Opinions of Win d - breaks . 



73 



tant consideration. Very satisfactory results have been secured in 
young orchards by planting between tree rows, and in encircling 
belts, with tall growing, western dent corn. It is practicable in 
some eases to plant Northern Spy on the more exposed sides of 
the orchard. This variety makes large trees, which protect the 
i-emainder of the planting, while the fruit holds on much better 




Fig. 2. An arbor vitae wind-break. (Adapted from Waugh, Bulletin 55, 
Vermont Exp. Sta.) 



than in other varieties, and is comparatively undamaged by tht 
wind. — F. A. Wmigli, Apple Groicing in Grand Isle Counfi/, 
Bulletin 65, Vermont Exp. Sta. 

As the young wood and fruit buds [of the peach] often suffer 
from the piercing blasts of winter, a spot that is sheltered from 
these is much to be desired. And, as they usually come from 
the north and northwest, a site on the south or southeast of a 
wood or hill is, other things being equal, greatly to be preferred. 
— Fulton, Peach Culture, 68. 

To shelter an orchard from the prevailing wind is often more 
important even than the aspect ; for pear trees, especially when 
heavily laden with fruit and exposed to a wind storm, will suffer 



74 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

more injury from being shaken than from an ordinary late frost. 
* * * * The evergreens should be planted in lines parallel 
with the pear rows, and they will more than pay for the ground 
they occupy in protecting the fruit trees from heavy gales. — 
Quinn, Pear Culture for Profit, 10 

It is within the power of man greatly to modify the character 
of a situation by the judicious planting of belts of evergreens, 
by a wise addition of elements and a proper culture of the soil, 
and by encouraging the shade of the vineyard itself wherever 
circumstances indicates its necessity. — Strong, Culture of the 
Grape, 101. 

In general, it will be found necessary to secure protection on 
the west, north and northeast. ^ * * * Nq defense is better 
than a good belt of Norway spruce, and if they form a crescent 
in which the vineyard is embowered, but little danger need be 
apprehended from violent winds. — Phin, Open Air Grape Cul- 
ture, 40. 

If the land has no protection from the north and northwest, 
see what the facilities are for supplying one either by walls or a 
belt of trees. If trees are to be used, evergreens are best.— i^w?- 
ler. Grape Culturist, 89. 

The location [for the vineyard] should be sheltered from the 
cold winds from the north and northwest. — Husmannf Culture of 
the Native Grape, 43. 

An artificial wind-break of this kind [''in the shape of an L, 
sometimes a perfect square," generally of cottonwoods, of the 
style prevalent in the west] is an excellent thing for the build- 
ings, and it should embrace several acres, but for protection to 
the orchard it is worse than useless. In a quiet, warm day in 
late winter these groves reflect the sun's rays, and, if continued 
for some days, will either start too early a growth, which is soon 
to freeze up again, or the freezing and thawing of the bark kills 
it in patches, and we have the next summer the evidence in the 
sloughing off of the bark on the sunny side, followed by decayed 
wood and a consequent swarm of borers, which take possession, 



Opinions of Wind - h rpaks 



75 



and death soon follows. It is generally conceded now by prac- 
tical orchardists that these wind-breaks are detrimental to the 
fruit trees, but we are frequently asked what we are to do to 
prevent the fruit from blowing off. We answer by asking what 
prevents this in an orchard of several hundred acres in extent?* 
Adam says that the best wind-break is "another row of trees." 
If it is determined to have this wind-break, why not make it of 
the Haas apple?— C. fJ\ Gurney, Northwestern Pomology {Concord, 
Nebraska), 59. 

A free circulation of air is very desirable in an orchard, and 
full exposure is better than shutting in too closely, yet in a 
full exposure is not found the best condition for a successful 
orchard. It should be surrounded with wind-breaks on the ex- 
posed sides, sufficient to somewhat break the force of the wind, 
but not heavy enough to prevent a good circulation of air through 
the orchard at any time. It is much more important to have a 
wind-break on the south and west sides of an orchard than on 
the north or east, for it is from the former directions that come 
the most injurious winds. — Samuel B. Green, Amateur Fruit-grow- 
ing {Minneapolis) , 74. 



->0i 




C»a» 



Fig. 3. Protection of an orange grove from the morning sun. 

Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the pro- 
tection against rigorous weather which fruit-growers in some 
other parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage 
in securing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. 



*The outside rows act as wind-breaks. The larger the orchard, the less 
is the injury to the interior parts of it by wind. An orchard may be very 
completely protected by another one standing to the windward.— L. H. B. 



76 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

* * * * It has already been remarked that on the immediate 
coast the successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly 
dependent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in 
regions farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong 
currants of air, which will ill affect trees and vines. In all such 
places the fruit-grower should plant wind-breaks, and will find 
himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the success- 
ful production on the protected area. In the interior valleys 
there is also need of shelter from occasional high winds, which 
may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, and prove 
very destructive both to trees and fruit. — WicJcson, California 
Fruits, 557. 

At Rivers [California] our orange groves are subject from Oc- 
tober to March to so-called "northers," a wind blowing from due 
north, and usually for three days and nights continuously. When 
orchards are not protected from these winds, the injury some 
seasons amounts to fully 75 per cent of the whole crop. Have 
also found that when the shelter belt was planted on all sides, 
and that on the east side was tall enough to shelter the orchard 
from the first rays of the morning sun, the injury from frost was 
only perceptible in the branches first exposed, while in orchards 
without the shelter on the east side, the damage was quite marked 
throughout the orchard. The diagram (Fig. 3, page 75) illustrates 
my meaning and experience. The top of the tree at the right 
was nipped by frost, whilst those at the left escaped. The Eu- 
calyptus globulus (Blue gum), Schinus molle (so-called Pepper- 
tree ) , and the Monterey cypress are all used for shelter belts ; the 
last named is the best.* — H. J. EudisiJl, in American Garden, 
XI., 563. 

Do not locate where your orchard will be exposed to severe 
winds. Quite a large proportion of fruit is lost every year by 
being whipped against thorns and branches, and the trees them- 
selves are sometimes half stripped of leaves. If you have reason 

♦The reason for the escape of the trees is, no doubt, the fact that the 
high shelter sliaded the grove in the morning, preventing the sun from 
Striking directly upon the trosted trees. — L. H. B, 



DiffiruUies of Fruit -growing. 77 

to apprehend an occasional wind storm, plant a double row of 
eucalyptus, pepper or cypress trees about the orchard for a wind- 
break.— -Spa^rZwgr, The Orange: Its Culture in California, 40. 

A place free from strong winds is best, but some that are 
subject to them are otherwise exceedingly desirable. Some windy 
places have been proved to be the best in other respects for 
orange culture. If orchards be planted in places subject to wind, 
wind-breaks should be planted at once. — Garey, Orange Culture 
in California, 18. 

The frequent discussion of the subject [advantages of partial 
forest shelter] * * ^t * among orange -growers, its impor- 
tance to all, and especially its importance to many portions of 
the state [Florida] where success must ever depend upon either 
forest or some artificial protection, demands careful attention. 
Many persons have heretofore considered it unnecessary, and the 
idea even absurd. But years of experience and observation, and 
especially the experience of the winter of 1876-7, have made 
many converts.— Moore, Treatise and Hand-book of Orange Cul- 
ture, 3d ed., 54. 

Forests and fruit-growing. — One of the reasons 
why fruit -growing is attended with increasing diffi- 
culties is because the forests have been destroyed, 
causing the country to become drier and hotter in 
summer and bleaker in winter. Forest, then, aids 
the fruit-grower in two important respects: 1. It 
prevents the disastrous effects of sweeping winds. 
2. It conserves and regulates atmospheric moisture. 

It is very doubtful if the extremes of tempera- 
ture 01 fiuctuations in annual means are more in- 
tense in recent years from the effects of forest re- 
moval. It may not even be true that there are 
more high winds now than formerly, but it is true 
that winds sweep over the farm with greater force. 



78 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Winds sweep the surface and bear away the mois- 
ture of the soil at the same time that they come 
in contact with the trees and bushes themselves, 
and take away their moisture. The chief effect of 
the forest is to check the force of winds in pre- 
scribed areas. It has a local influence. Aside from 
all this, if forests were retained about the sources 
of creeks and upon springy hillsides, a more con- 
tinuous supply of water might be obtained for irri- 
gation, stock, spraying and domestic uses. It is 
worth saying, too, that a country which is dotted 
here and there with forest areas is a much more 
attractive one, to every person who loves varietj^ of 
landscape and nature, than one which has been re- 
duced to a dead sameness by the removal of all 
timber. 

Whilst there ,are thus many advantages to fruit- 
growing of small forest preserves, there are also 
disadvantages. In certain eases they may become 
the harbors and rallying places of serious insect or 
fungous invasions. This difficulty may be largely 
avoided by cutting out those trees and bushes which 
breed the fruit-grower's enemies. The wild cherries 
are much loved of the tent caterpillars, the elm of 
the canker-worm, and wild roses and their kin of 
the rose-chafer. The cedar- apple fungus thrives 
upon the red cedar, and is thence transported to 
the quince or apple orchard, and a form of it 
affects the wild thorn trees. The red -rust flour- 
ishes upon the wild blackberries, dewberries and 
black raspberries, and the strawberry diseases breed 



* influences of Wind-breaJ{s. 79 

upon the patches of wild berries. It is not often, 
however, that the forest areas become a very serious 
menace to fruit-growers. 

Review of the influences of wind -breaks upon fruit 
plantations. — The benefits derived from wind-breaks 
are numerous, most positive in character, and appear 
to possess sufficient importance to warrant the 
strongest recommendations of horticultural writers. 
Yet the injuries occasionally sustained in consequence 
of shelter belts may be serious, for it is a well 
attested fact that trees sometimes suffer from cold 
in the immediate vicinity of a dense wind-break 
when they escape injury in other places. This fact 
is easily explained, however. The influence of a 
wind-break upon the temperatures of an adjacent 
plantation is governed by its position with reference 
to prevailing or severe winds. Of itself, wind 
probably exerts little or no influence upon tempera- 
ture. It acquires the temperature of surfaces over 
which it passes. If these surfaces are colder than 
the given area, cold winds are the result, or if 
warmer, as a large body of water, the winds are 
warm. But wind often causes great injury to plants 
because of its acceleration of evaporation; and winds 
which are no colder than the given area, if com- 
paratively dry, may consequently do great damage to 
fruit plantations. This is particularly true at cer- 
tain times during the winter season. Land winds, 
being cold and dry, are therefore apt to be danger- 
ous, while winds which traverse large bodies of 
water, and are therefore comparatively warm and 



80 



The Frhtciples of Fruit-growing. 



moist, are usually in themselves protectors of tender 
plants. The following table, giving the average 
temperature of different winds at New Haven, Con- 
necticut, as compared with the mean temperature of 
that place, shows that those winds which blow off 
the Sound are much warmer than the land winds:* 



Direction of 
wind. 


Average above the 
mean temp. 


Direction of 
wind. 


Average under the 
mean temp. 


Southwest 

South 


+ 4° 
+ 3.2° 
+ 1.2° 

4- .5° 


Northeast 

West 


- .6° 
1 1° 


Southwest 


North. 


_ 9 70 


East. 


Northwest 


4 5° 







The mitigating influence of bodies of water is 

familiar ; the following figures will serve to show 

the extent to which they modify the mean tempera- 
ture of the four coldest months :t 

A.— IN NEW YORK. 



Stations. 



Dec. I Jan. Feb, 



Fredonia 30.8 ! 28.7 



Rochester. 



28.5 26. 



Auburn ! 29.5 24.4 

t j 

Utica [ 26.8 23.3 



27.4 
26.4 
24.6 
23.4 



Mar. 



I Aver- I 
j age. I 

.1 L 



Lati- 
tude. 



35.3 30.55 
33.1 I 28.5 
33.5 I 28. 
32.3 ! 26.45 



42.26° 
43.07° 
42.55° 
43.06° 



Eleva- 
tion. 



709 ft. 
506 " 
650 '♦ 
473 " 



Period of 
observation. 



1830-1848 
/1830 
t 1833-1853 

1827-1849 
1826-1848 



*Loomis' Meteorology, 88. 

t Compiled from Blodget's Climatology of the United States, 38. 







M^arm and Cold Winds 




81 




B, — IN MICHIGAN. 


Stations. 


D«C. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Aver- 
age. 


Lati- 
tude. 


Eleva- 
tion. 


Period of 
observation. 


Detroit 


26.9 


27. 


26.6 


35.4 


28.97 


42.2 ° 


580 ft. 


/ 1836-1846 
t 1849-1851 


Fort Gratiot. 


26.6 


25.3 


25.3 


33.2 


27.6 


42.55° 


598 " 


/ 1830-1846 
\^ 1849-1852 


Battle Creek. 


27. 


24.1 


22.6 


33.7 


26.85 


42.2 ° 


80vJ " 


1849-1855 


Ann Arbor. . . 


25.3 


23.6 


21. 


32.7 


25.65 


42.15° 


700 " 


1854-1855 



It will be seen that the warmest stations are 
in most intimate connection with large bodies of 
water: Fredonia is on Lake Erie, Rochester near 
Lake Ontario, Auburn near the central New York 
lake region and possibly within the influence of Lake 
Ontario, while Utica is farther inland. Similar ob- 
servations might be made concerning the Michigan 
stations. Temperatures of the coldest days would 
show much greater differences. 

It should be observed that the influence of a body 
of water is not governed by its proximity, but by 
elevation of the land and direction of winds. Grand 
Rapids, Michigan, although about twenty -five miles 
from Lake Michigan, is greatly influenced by it. 

It is evident that if a wind-break stops or deflects 
a warm wind, it may prove injurious. A still place 
in the lee of the wind-break may, therefore, be the 
coldest part of the plantation. So far as the writer 
is able to learn, this sort of injury from wind-breaks 
is confined to those regions which are directly influ- 
enced by bodies of water. The eastern shore of Lake 
Michigan has furnished many examples. Most growers 



82 



The Principles of Frinf-grounng. 



in that region demand a free circulation of air from 
the lake ward, while desiring protection from the east. 
(Cf. Mr. Cook's letter in Table IV., page 70.) This 
experience, however, does not argue that wind-breaks 
should be entirely abolished on the lakeward sides 
of plantations, but that such breaks should be thin 
enough to allow of the passage of wind, while break- 
ing its force. In such places, a wind-break should 
be simply a wind-break, not a wind -stop. 

The diagrams (Figs. 4 and 5) admirably illustrate 




The deflection of winds over a lake bluflf. 



these remarks. Fig. 4 is a diagram of a high bank 
on Lake Michigan. The strong winds from the west- 
ward strike the bank and are deflected upward, and 
strike the surface again at some distance from the 
cliff, leaving a comparatively still space at A. Decay- 
ing substances on the beach of the lake are often 
more obnoxious to those living half a mile or more 
from the lake than to those living near the bank. 
Fig. 5 is a diagram showing a similar deflection of 
wind and a comparatively still area (A) by a very 
dense wind-break. 



Deflection of Winds. 



83 



The advantages of wind-breaks in lessening wind 
falls, and in preventing the breaking of trees, dc 
not appear to be sufficiently understood. In sections 
which are influenced by large bodies of water, or 
when the fruits grown are sufficiently hardj^ to endure 
the most trying winds, these are the chief advantages 
of shelter belts, and are ample reasons for planting 
them. The greater facility with which labor can be 
performed in windy weather, under the protection of 
a- wind-break, is worth consideration. 

The injuries sustained through the greater abun- 




Fig. 5. Deflection of winds l)y a dense shelter belt. 



dance of insects immediately adjoining the wind- 
l^reak are easily overcome with the modern spraying 
devices. There are many instances in which the 
wind-break lessens the vigor of one or two adjoining 
rows of fruit trees, but such injury appears to occur 
only where cultivation is poor, or where the wind- 
break has already o])tained a good foot -hold when the 
fruit is set. The writer has examined a number of 
excellent plantations in which the rows next the 
wind-break are as vigorous and productive as any in 
the orchard. In fact, a number of good observers 
declare that best fruit and greatest productiveness 



84 The Principles of Frttit-grotrimj. 

occur next the wind-break. When the wind-break 
has been long established, however, it is difficult to 
make trees live alongside of it. The better plan is to 
plant the break with or only shortly before the 
orchard is planted. 

The following from T. G. Yeomans & Sons, Wal- 
worth, Wayne County, New York, who have had ex- 
tensive and pronounced experiences with wind-breaks, 
is a judicious statement of the advantages to be de- 
rived from shelter belts: "We have been extensively 
engaged in fruit -culture for over forty years, and now 
have in bearing about one hundred and thirty acres 
of apple orchard, ten acres of dwarf pears, ten of 
orange quince, and small fruits. For many years we 
have experimented with wind-breaks, and now have 
many artificial shelter belts of various kinds and 
ages, the oldest having been planted nearly thirty 
years. We consider wind-breaks to be of the great- 
est value to fruit culture, and we are confident that 
most fruit-growers do not realize their importance. 
They protect the trees and plants at all seasons, and 
prevent windfalls to a great extent. Orchards thus 
protected in this region are more productive, more 
uniform, and longer lived than others. They render 
labor among the trees and plants much easier on 
windj^ days, and enable men to work in very wind}^ 
weather, when otherwise it would be impossible. We 
have always succeeded in raising good fruit close 
to the wind-break. >K >!^ * y^^ consider land 
devoted to shelter belts as very profitable invest- 
ment, even to ordinary farm crops. We should not 



How to Make the Wind -break. 85 

attempt to grow dwarf pears, orange quinces or 
raspberries, without shelter of some sort." 

Position of the ivind -break with reference to the 
fruit plantation. — It appears that a wind-break is 
desirable wherever the fruit plantation is exposed 
to strong winds. In order to prevent possible in- 
jury from too little circulation of air in certain 
localities, particular care should be exercised in the 
construction of the wind-break (cf. next section). 
The west, southwest, and north winds are the ones 
which need greatest attention in general. The pre- 
vailing winds are the ones which are chiefly to be 
avoided. This is particularly important in regions 
where these winds are normally strong, as on the 
ocean shore. In fact, it is generally impossible to 
grow successful orchards in full exposure to the 
ocean. 

How to make the ivind -break. — From a general 
study of the subject, it appears that in interior lo- 
calities dense plantings are advisable, tight hedges 
being often recommended. This is because the 
winds, coming off the land, are likely to make the 
plantation colder. In localities influenced by bodies 
of water, however, it is evidently better practice to 
plant a belt simply for the purpose of breaking or 
checking the force of the warmer winds, still allow- 
ing them to pass in their course. Such a belt 
gives the desired shelter to trees when laden with 
fruit and ice, and may hold the snow, while danger 
from comparatively still air is averted. The damage 
from still air is usually observed in the lee of 



Construction of the Wmd -break. 87 

natural forests, and it is in such places that injury 
is reported by correspondents. The writer has found 
no indisputable evidence to show that such injury 
ever accompanies artificial wind-breaks; places where 
such injury was reported have been visited, but the 
loss of trees and fruit was plainly due to age of 
trees or other obvious reasons. Still, it is probable 
that a hedge -like wind-break may sometimes be the 
cause of mischief; and such should never be made 
in any locality until the problems of local atmos- 
pheric drainage have been well considered. 

The coarser evergreens, planted close together, 
are therefore advisable for interior places, while 
deciduous trees, or evergreens somewhat scattered, 
are often better for the lake regions. In these 
latter cases, however, the lay of the land is im- 
portant, for if atmospheric drainage is good there 
is less danger of injury from tight belts. Lower 
levels, upon which cold air settles, are therefore 
more in need of open belts than higher lands. 
For interior places, a strip of natural forest is the 
ideal wind-break. In artificial belts, the kind 
recommended by Messrs. Yeomans, and illustrated in 
Fig. 6, is undoubtedly one of the best. The illus- 
tration shows two rows of maples backing up a 
row of Norway spruce. "The maples then receive 
and break the force of the wind, and prevent the 
spruces from becoming ragged. We never shear 
the spruces." A Lombardy poplar wind-break 
alongside a peach orchard is shown in Fig. 7, on the 
following page. 




Fig 



A Loiubardy poplar wind-break to protect a peach orchard, in 
western Michigan, 



south 



Trees for Wind-breaks. 



80 



Correspondents in New York and Michigan ad- 
vise the following trees for shelter belts: 



Recommended by 

Norway spruce 25 persons. 

Austrian pine 5 " 

Scotch pine 3 " 

White pine 2 

Native deci'ous trees 2 " 

Lomhardy poplar 2 '' 

European larch 1 " 



Recommended by 



Hemlock spruce. . . 

Arbor vitse 

Nut-bearing trees . 

Hard maple 

Elm 

Basswood 

Willows 



person. 



The gist of the whole matter is to select those 
kinds of trees which are most thrifty and healthy 
in the particular locality, and which are least in- 
fested by fungi and insects that are also common 
to fruit plants, and then to study the local condi- 
tions carefulh' to determine how dense or how open 
the shelter should be. For California, Wickson* 
recommends species of eucalyptus, pepper or schinus, 
Monterey cypress, Monterey pine, osage orange, locust 
and maples. "Quite a number of the larger grow- 
ing deciduous fruit trees," he continues, "are used 
to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards 
for the protection of the inclosure. The fig, the 
walnut, the chestnut, seedling almonds and apricots, 
are especially commended for such use." 

In Florida it is a common practice to leave 
strips of the original forest to serve as shelter 
belts. If this forest is hammock land, and there- 
fore well clothed underneath, the protection of a 
belt two to four rods wide will be most complete 



♦California Fruits, 558. 



90 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

The cabbage palmetto is often allowed to stand 
promiscuously through the orange plantation, partly 
to serve as a protection from winds, partly for 
shade and ornament, and partly to exert some sup- 
posed influence in correcting the acidity of the land. 
In exposed places, orange - groves are sometimes 
protected by very tall open fences. 

General summarij upo7i wind-hreaks. — 1. A wind- 
break may exert great influence upon a fruit planta- 
tion . 

2. The benefits derived from wind-breaks are the 
following : Protection from cold ; lessening of evapo- 
ration from soil and plants; lessening of windfalls ; 
lessening of liability to mechanical injury of trees ; 
retention of snow and leaves ; facilitating of labor ; 
protection of blossoms from severe winds ; enabling 
trees to grow more erect ; lessening of injury from 
the drying up of small fruits ; retention of sand in 
certain localities ; hastening of maturity of fruits in 
some cases ; encouragement of birds ; ornamentation. 

3. The injuries sustained from wind-breaks are 
as follows : Preventing the free circulation of warm 
winds, and consequent exposure to cold ; injuries 
from insects and fungous diseases ; injuries from the 
encroachment of the wind-break itself ; increased lia- 
bility to late spring frosts in rare cases, 

a. The injury from cold, still air is usually 
confined to those localities which are directly 
influenced by large bodies of water, and which 
are protected by forest belts. It can be avoided 
by planting thin belts. 



Summary upon Wind-breaks. 91 

b. The injury from insects can be averted 
bj' spraying with arsenical poisons. 

c. The injury from the encroachment of the 
wind-break may be averted, in -part at least, by 
good cultivation, and by planting the fruit si- 
multaneously with the belt. 80 far as practicable, 
the wind-break should be planted at a distance 
of six rods or more from the fruit plantation. 

4. Wind-breaks are advantageous wherever fruit 
plantations are exposed to strong winds. 

5. As a rule, in localities where atmospheric 
drainage will not be seriously checked, the wind- 
break should have a comparativelj^ dense bottom, 
formed by undergrowth or low -branching trees. 

6. The wind-break should never be dense enough 
to force the buds on fruit trees in those localities 
which are subject to late spring frosts, as it may 
sometimes do when it faces the south and acts like 
a southern exposure for the plantation. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that spruces and other evergreens 
should be planted sparingly in such localities, and 
that deciduous trees which leaf out late in spring 
should be chosen for the wind-break. 

7. In interior places, dense or broad belts, of two 
or more rows of trees, are desirable, while within the 
influence of large bodies of water narrow belts, 
comprising but a row or two, are usually preferable. 

8. The best trees for wind-breaks in the north- 
eastern states are Norway spruce, and Austrian and 
Scotch pines, among the evergreens. Among decidu- 
ous trees, most of the rapid -growing native species 



92 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

are useful. A mixed plantation, with the hardiest 
and most vigorous deciduous trees on the windward, 
is probably the ideal artificial shelter belt.* 



PROTECTING PLANTATIONS FROM FROST. 

Having now considered the relations of location, 
site and wind-breaks to cold and frost, we may ad- 
dress ourselves to a discussion of the means by which 
injury from local frosts may be averted, in case they 
threaten to occur. These means are of two types, — 
those which attempt to enable the plant to escape 
injury from the frosts, and those which attempt to 
prevent the frost from occurring. Altogether there 
are six general means which have been proposed for 
protecting plants from frost: Mulching, covering the 
plants, adding the vapor of water to the atmosphere, 
making artificial clouds, causing currents of air, and 
heating the air.t 

Mulching to enable plants to escape frost. % — It is 
a general opinion that a mulch or heavy cover placed 
upon the soil about plants when it is frozen will re- 
tard flowering and the maturing of fruit ; yet the 
practice appears to be often unsatisfactory, and there 
are reasons for supposing that the philosophy of the 
subject is not commonly understood. The subject is 
one of increasing importance, for it is essential that 

♦Bull. 48, Neb. Exp. Sta.. on wind-breaks, comes to hand as we go to press. 
tA seventh category may be added,— whitewashing the plants. SeeWhitten, 
Bull. 38, Mo. Exp. Sta., and Garden-Makings p. 64. 
tConsult Bull. 59, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Mulching to Retard Fruits, 93 

every means be used to escape late spring frosts. 
Efforts must also be made to reach the market when 
there is least competition from other sources, and, in 
the north, at least, this competition comes 
chiefly from early products produced in states 
to the southward. A rehearsal of experi- 
ments made to test the efficiency of mulching 
for these purposes will indicate the nature 
of the problem. 

The tests were made at Ithaca, New 
York. The ground froze deep in December, 
and the frost did not leave it until the mid- 
dle of March. Upon the 28th of February, 
1893, the snow being well settled and a foot 
and more deep in the open fields, heavy 
mulches of coarse manure and litter from 
horse stables were placed about apples, 
almonds, buffalo berries, blackberries, rasp- 
berries, currants, gooseberries, grapes, June- 
berries, peaches and quinces ; and straw- 
berries were mulched later. Observations 
were also made upon roses which were 
mulched in the fall for winter protection. 

The apples and other tree -fruits com- 
prised trees which were set m the spring ofmuichupon 
of 1889. Half of a large wagon load shoot, 
of mulch was placed about each tree, 
covering the snow deep for a distance of three feet 
or more in all directions. The small -fruits were 
mulched heavily to the middle of the rows, or three 
and a half to four feet in each direction. A heavy 



94 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

wagon load of mulch was sufficient to cover about 
ten feet of row. On the 29th of March, these 
mulches were examined, and, although the frost had 
left the fields fully ten days before, the earth under 
the cover was still solidl}- frozen and from six to 
eight inches of snow persisted. Here, then, was an 
excellent opportunity to study the effects of a cold 
soil upon the vegetation of plants. On the 13th of 
April, there was still frost and snow under the goose- 
berry mulches, and yet both mulched and unmulched 
plants seemed to be starting alike. It was appar- 
ent that the temperature of the soil exerted no 
influence upon the swelling of the buds, for the 
buds which projected above the mulch were as for- 
ward as those upon untreated plants, while the buds 
immediately under the mulch, upon the same twig, 
were wholly dormant. The illustration (Fig. 8, page 
93) shows a gooseberry twig upon which this differ- 
ence is apparent. The twig was covered up to the 
point indicated by the mark (a). The protruding 
l^ortion is seen to have pushed its buds forward, 
except the very tip, where the shoot was wintei- 
killed. Shoots of which the tips were caught under 
the mulch showed perfectly dormant buds at both 
ends, while the protruding middle portion was as 
forward as twigs upon unmulched plants. Moreover, 
the protruding portions of the mulched plants main- 
tained their forwardness, and produced leaves, flow- 
ers and fruit at the same time as the contiguous 
plants which were not treated. Crandall currants, 
Juneberries, roses, grapes, and all the tree fruits, 



The Stored Food. 95 

behaved similarly throughout the season. The 
mulched blackberries, raspberries and Victoria cur- 
rants seemed to be a daj- or two behind the others 
in starting, ])ut they very soon caught up, and there 
was no difference in season of bloom and maturity 
of fruit. 

With the strawberries the case was far dift'erent. 
General Putnam and Oregon Everbearing were 
mulched March 25, when the ground was completely 
thawed out. The mulch covered the plants and the 
entire space between the rows to the depth of three 
inches. On the 15th of May, this mulch was re- 
moved. At this time, the unmulched plants were in 
full leaf, and were nearly ready to bloom. The 
plants under the mulch were just starting into leaf, 
and the growth was weak and bleached. The plants 
were endeavoring to push themselves through the 
cover to the light and air. The mulch was forked 
off the plants, and they gradually assumed a normal 
color and habit, and bloomed June 1. The bloom 
was delayed from ten daj's to two weeks, according 
to the depth of the covering. The plants did not 
seem to recover entirely, however, and the fruitage 
was somewhat lighter than on the normal plants ; 
but it was delayed about a week. 

All this is what the botanist would have ex- 
pected. It is well known that plants store up 
starchy matters in their bulbs or branches, to be 
used in the growth of the adjacent parts in early 
spring. The earliest bloom of spring is supported 
b3' this store of nutriment, rather than by food 



96 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

freshly appropriated from the soil. This is well 
illustrated by placing well -matured twigs of apple 
or willow (or other early -flowering plants) in vases 
of water in winter, when the buds will burst and 
flowers will often appear. It was admirably enforced 
by a simple experiment which we made in connec- 
tion with the foregoing inquiry. On the 15th of 
February, a branch of a nectarine tree which stood 
alongside the horticultural laboratory was drawn 
into the ofliee through a window. This oflice was 
maintained at the temperature of a living room. 
On the 6th of April the buds began to swell, and 
the young leaves had reached a length of three- 
fourths inch a week later. The leaves finally at- 
tained their full size upon this branch before the 
buds upon the remaining or out -door portion of the 
plant had begun to swell. This experiment is by no 
means a novel one, for essentially the same thing has 
been often accomplished with the vine and other plants; 
but it must impress upon the reader the fact that 
much of the bursting vegetation of springtime is 
supported by a local store of nutriment, and is more 
or less independent of root action. 

These various experiments and observations show 
that a mulch can retard flowers and fruit only 
when it covers the top of the plant as well as the 
soil. If the ground could be kept frozen for a 
sufficiently long period after vegetation begins, the 
plant would consume its supply of stored food, and 
might then be checked from inactivity of the root, 
but this would evidently be at the expense of in- 



Effects of Mulching. 97 

jury to the plant ; but, in practice, it is fortunately 
impossible to hold the frost in the soil so long. 
It is evident, too, that the covering of strawberries 
and other low plants for the purpose of retarding 
fruit must be practiced with caution, for a mulch 
of sufficient depth to measurably delay vegetation is 
apt to bleach and injure the young growth, and to 
lessen the crop. Yet it can sometimes be used to 
good effect, and fruiting can be delayed a week, 
perhaps even more. Some skilful strawberry -grow- 
ers are able to delay fruiting upon small patches 
as much as two weeks by means of mulches. 

We may draw the following conclusions upon 
the effects of mulching to retard bloom : 

1. The early bloom of fruit -plants depends very 
largely upon the appropriation of food stored in the 
twigs, and it is more or less independent of root 
action. This is proved both by direct experiment 
and by study of the physiology of plants. 

2. It must follow, then, that the temperature of 
the twig or branch must be reduced if its vegeta- 
tion is to be much retarded ; or, in other words, 
the top of the plant, as well as the soil, must be 
mulched, and in practice this is possible only with 
strawberries and other very low plants, or those 
which are laid down during winter. 

3 There is danger of injuring plants by heavy 
mulch which is allowed to remain late in spring. 
If it is desired to retard flowers or fruit by mulch- 
ing, the practice should not be violent, and the 
plants should be carefully watched. 

H 



98 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

4. Many strawberry -growers are able to delay the 
ripening of fruit by mulching from two days to 
two weeks ; but a week's delay is usually about the 
limit of profitable results. 

5. Whilst mulching the ground may not retard 
the period of bloom, and thus enable the plant to 
escape frost, it is, nevertheless, often useful in pro- 
tection from frost because it holds moisture, and, 
therefore, tends to raise the dew-point, as explained 
farther on. 

Covering plants for protection. — The discussion of 
the mulching of strawberries in order to protect 
them from cold and from frost, as already described, 
really belongs here. It is, of course, well known 
that plants may be covered to protect them not 
only from the winter's cold, but from the incidental 
frosts of spring. It is not necessary to discuss the 
various means of covering them, but to enter into 
only sufficient detail to enable the reader to grasp 
the capabilities of the operation. 

Many low -growing plants can be covered with 
earth for protection. Thus it is a practice in some 
places to plow a furrow or two over the strawberry 
rows when a frost is anticipated. Fig trees, and 
other low or flexible - stemmed plants, are often 
planted on sloping land, so that they may be bent 
to the surface and covered when occasion requires. 
In parts of Russia, and other cold countries, the 
trees of orchard fruits are often pegged down in a 
similar manner. 

Blackberries and raspberries are extensively laid 



Laying Dotrn thf^ PUinis. 



99 



down in cold climates, and it may be well to 
relate the method here, for the benefit of those 
who occupy bleak locations. Late in fall, the 
bushes are tipped over and covered. Three men 
are generally employed to perform this' labor. One 
man goes ahead with a long- handled, round -pointed 
shovel and digs the earth away six inches deep 
from under the roots. The second man has a six- 




Fig. 



Peach tree trained for laying down. 



tined or four-tined fork which he thrusts against 
the plant a foot or so above the ground, and by 
pushing upon the fork and stamping against the 
roots with the foot, the plant is laid over in the 
direction from which the earth was removed. The 
third man now covers the plant with earth or 
marsh hay. Earth is generally used, and if the 
varietv is a tender one the whole bush is covered 



J 00 The Principles of Fruit -f/r owing. 

two or three inches deep. Hard}^ varieties may be 
simply held down by throwing a few shovelfulls of 
earth on the tops of the canes, thns allowing the 
snow to fill in amongst the tops. If the grower 
lives in a locality where he does not fear late 
spring frosts, the bushes should be raised early in 
the spring ; but if frosts are feared, they may be 
left under cover until corn -planting time. If the 
buds become large and are bleached white under 
cover, tliej^ Avill suffer when exposed to the atmos- 
phere ; and one must watch the bushes in spring, 
and raise them before the buds become soft and 
white. This method of laying down blackberry 
plants costs less than $10 per acre, and the slight 
breaking of the roots is no disadvantage. Some 
growers dig the earth away on both sides of the 
row, and still others bend over the canes without 
any digging. Whatever method is employed, the 
operator must be careful not to crack or split the 
canes. The method can be varied with different 
varieties, for some bear stiff er canes than others. 

The laying down of orchard trees is little prac- 
ticed in this country, but it must come to be better 
understood as the country develops and a greater 
interest arises in amateur fruit-growing. Fig. 9 
(page 99) shows a method of training peach trees 
for laying down.* The trunk is trained in a hori- 
zontal position, and it should be ten feet or more 
long to allow of its being twisted. The top is trained 

*J. T. Macomber, " Peach - growing in the Cold North," Amer. Garden, 
xi. 231. 



Covering Peaches in Kansas. 101 

fan- shaped and is supported by a stake, and the bend 
of the trunk rests upon a block of wood. The 
long, horizontal trunk remains comparatively small 
and pliable year after year. It should be covered 
with an inverted board trough at all seasons, to 
prevent injury from the sun. The flat top is laid 
upon the ground each winter, by twisting the trunk, 
and is covered with boards; it is not lifted un- 
until all danger of late spring frosts is past. 

Experiments along this line have been made in 
Kansas:* "When the first attempt at their protection 
was made, the trees [peaches] were three years old 
from the bud. In the fall of that year, 1887, the 
block was thinned out by removing some of the 
trees, leaving the remainder at irregular intervals, 
the alternate best trees with single, unforked trunks, 
being left standing wherever they occurred in the 
rows, with the result of an irregular alternate ar- 
rangement, in which the trees stood perhaps from 
six to ten feet apart. The tops of a number of 
these trees were prepared for tying -up by the re- 
moval of any wide -spreading branches, and by the 
shortening -in of those remaining. After this prun- 
ing, the branches were drawn toward the main 
stem, held in place by ties of soft material to avoid 
the barking of the branches, and the entire tree -top 
thus prepared was surrounded by evergreen branches, 
mostly those of pine and red cedar, which happened 
to be at hand through certain changes in the ever- 



* Bull. 14, Kan. Exp. Sta., Dec, 



102 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

green plantatious on the college grounds. Not only 
were these evergreen branches placed outside to 
some thickness, where fhey were held by cords 
wrapped around, but the spaces in the interior were 
filled with them as compactly as possible. To sup- 
port this heavy mass of material, two or three 
stakes were driven alongside the tree in position to 
be wrapped in with the branches. This attempt 
was followed by results but partially favorable. 
While the trees that had the advantage of protec- 
tion showed more bloom than those alongside not 
so protected, the difference was not sufficiently 
marked to warrant the conclusion that this method 
could be made of practical benefit. It was found 
to be a matter of difficulty to retain the evergreen 
branches closely enough in and about the head of 
the peach tree to keep out the killing cold. More- 
over, covering material of this kind could not be 
obtained in our state, except hy accident, and some 
substitute must be found. As a cheaper and, it is 
probable, a better material, we should have made a 
repetition of the trial with corn fodder, had we not 
been led by a stray suggestion to modify the method. 
"The following fall, 1888, the trees were in good 
condition for further trial. The shortening -in of 
some branches and the thinning -out of others had 
left abundant fruiting wood, favorably distributed and 
well covered with fruit -buds. Our plan was now to 
bend the trees downward, bringing them as near the 
earth as possible, and keeping them in this position, 
to be covered by a mass of hay or similar material 



Laying Down Trees in Kansas. 108 

thrown over the tops. To facilitate the bending -down 
of the tree, the earth was removed on the opposite 
sides of the trunk, preferably north and south, and 
on these sides the larger roots were cut off near the 
base, those on the right and left being allowed to re- 
main as far as possible undisturbed, to keep the tree 
in unbroken connection with the soil. Now, as the 
tree -trunk was inclined toward the earth, the lateral 
roots, by twisting slightly, offered no resistance to 
the operation. When the tree was sufficiently inclined, 
forked stakes were driven over the branches into the 
earth, to keep all in position. The soil was then 
heaped well over the roots and base of the trunk, to 
a depth sufficient to protect them thoroughly against 
drying out, and finally the entire tree was covered 
with whatever of suitable material was at hand. Not 
having enough of this covering material upon the 
grounds, we bought of a neighboring farmer the poor 
hay in the top and bottom of an old stack at a nom- 
inal cost. This final covering was put in place in 
the last of November. To prevent the scattering of 
the hay by the wind, we soon after found it expedi- 
ent to hold it in place by throwing upon the piles a 
lot of brush, grape prunings, and the trimmings of 
the orchard. 

"Early in the following April (the 2d and 3d), 
when the warm weather began to burst the buds, the 
covering was removed, the trees raised to an upright 
position, properly staked and tied, the blooming 
shoots again shortened -in where necessary, the earth 
replaced firmly about the roots, the ground leveled, 



104 The Prineiplfs of Fruit-growing. 

and the rubbish refiioved. The trees were now al- 
lowed to make whatever growth the season might 
afford. The trees laid down were in all varieties 
found, on uncovering, to be in advance of their un- 
protected neighbors, and in several cases the flower- 
buds were expanded under the cover, the buds on 
standing trees being yet unblown. When all were 
in the best condition for an estimate of the pro- 
portion of bloom, a comparison of the trees that 
had been laid down with others of the same varie- 
ties exposed to the winter, showed for the former 
proportions of full bloom varying from one -third in 
Ringgold to two -thirds in most varieties, exposed 
trees of the same showing only here and there 
scattering blooms. Hale's Early gave on exposed 
trees a third, and on protected trees three -fourths 
of a full bloom. Most of the trees set a large 
number of fruits, and prospects were good for a 
crop ; but at the time of ripening a peculiar rot 
attacked all sorts alike, and of the whole not over 
a bushel of sound fruit was gathered. 

"The third trial, 1889, was conducted in all re- 
spects like the second. The trees had by the end 
of the summer recovered from the rather severe 
pruning necessary to bring them to place the pre- 
vious fall, and were accordingly in good condition 
for the last attempt. Moreover, the growth of the 
unpruned side -roots had been such as to put the 
trees fairly into shape to do well without the roots 
at front and back, and when these were again un- 
covered they were found to be short but fibrous, 



Lnj/ivg Boirn Trpc^ in Kansas. 105 

wherefore their aiuputatiou to facilitate laying down 
was no lonjL^er needed. 

"The result of the last trial, shown in the pro- 
duct of the summer just past, maj' be summed up 
l)riefly in these statements : The trees are now in 
good, healthy condition. The bearing wood is in a 
compact head, with no long branches to be broken 
down by the fruit. The shoots and spurs are, at 
this writing, covered with plump fruit -buds. The 
lateral roots are strong, while those at front and 
back are no longer an obstacle to the operation of 
laying down the trees. There was this year a full 
crop of fruit, and such fine Crawfords, Oldmixons, 
Smocks, Stumps, Elbertas, Columbias, Bonanzas and 
Ringgolds were not to be found in any orchard but 
our own in this locality, though in some favored 
stations outside the college farm certain seedling 
trees were in fruit in a limited way. We sold most 
of the product readily on the spot at the rate of 
sixty cents per basket for tlie finest early, and fifty 
cents for the later fruit, the basket being the ordi- 
nary ten -pound grape package. 

"The cost of putting down seventy -one .trees in 
the fall, including labor and hay bought, with the 
expense of replacing them in the spring, amounted 
to about twenty cents per tree, the labor being paid 
at the rate of ten cents per hour, and the hay 
costing two dollars. The average yield of the trees, 
accounting for fruit gathered and sold, and allowing 
by estimate for some stolen, was not far from one- 
half bushel each, leaving, at the prices obtained, a 



106 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

net return of not far from one and one -half dollars 
per tree." 

Some kinds of fruits may be advantageously pro- 
tected by covering them with temporary (or even per- 
manent) screens. This is extensively done in pine- 
apple culture, in which the better varieties are grown 
under lath or slat sheds, for the purpose of protection 
from frost, sun and drought. Small or amateur 
plantations of strawberries, or even of bush -fruits, 
may be easily covered with lath screens when frost is 
feared. 

Adding vapor of tvater to the air. — The most 
serious frosts usually occur when the air is dry. 
An abundance of watery vapor in the air probably 
tends to check the radiation of the earth's heat, and 
the evaporation of water has a pronounced influence 
in raising the dew-point. The means of adding 
vapor to the atmosphere are several : Spraying, 
flooding and irrigating, mulching and tilling. A 
thorough spraying of plants with ordinary cold 
water at nightfall, when a frost is feared, is one of 
the most efficient means of protection from light 
frosts. The machinery which is used in spraying 
for insects and fungi may be used for this purpose. 
Strawberries and other low plants may be wet at 
nightfall by means of a sprinkling cart. Elaborate 
stand-pipe devices, connecting with underground 
pipes, have been used in California to facilitate the 
spraying of orchards.* The flooding of fruit -plan- 
tations to protect the plants from frost is practi- 



* See Galloway, Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1895, 156. 



Adding Moisture to ihf Air. 107 

cable only in cranberry bogs, and in places where 
vineyards are arranged to be flooded for the de- 
struction of phylloxera. 

The following remarks by Hammon indicate the 
nature of the problem : * 

"In places where irrigation can be used, it will 
be found of great value in protecting against frost. 
Let the water be turned on until the soil is 
thoroughly moistened. The evaporation of the water 
from the damp soil will tend to raise the dew- 
point. Since evaporation takes place near the sur- 
face this method is especially valuable in protecting 
low plants and shrubs, but has also been found 
very valuable in protecting citrous groves from freez- 
ing weather. The irrigating should be done at as 
early an hour as possible, preferably on the day 
preceding the night when frost is anticipated, and 
the ground kept thoroughly wet until danger from 
frost is passed." 

"Moist soil, or localities that can be easily 
flooded for the purpose of protection, are to be 
preferred to dry sections of otherwise similar loca- 
tion ; for the evaporation of the moisture from the 
soil, on dry, cold nights, will tend to raise the 
dew-point of the air and thus diminish the proba- 
bility of frost. 

"The irrigation of the hillsides about a valley 
in which protection is desired, and the growing 

* W. H. Hammon (Forecast official United States Weather Bureau), iu 
"Frost, How and When to Prevent Injury Thereby;" also pub. in Cal. Frt. Gr., 
Feb. 8, 1896- 



108 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

thereon of plants or trees with a large amount of 
foliage will, by the evaporation from the soil and 
verdure, tend to raise the dew-point of the surface 
air as it flows downward into the valley." 

"A modified form of water protection which is 
valuable in orchards is to spray the trees with 
water. This plan is probably even more valuable 
in protecting from freezing citrous fruits and other 
plants which are not injured until the temperature 
has fallen several degrees below the freezing point ; 
for, in these cases, the water will tend to freeze 
before the fruit is injured, and in freezing will 
make sensible a large amount of heat, thus pre- 
venting further cooling of the air. For this method 
to be successful the spraying musfet be continued 
until the temperature rises." 

Kedzie writes as follows upon the subject:* 

"The vapor of water in the air (and clouds 
also) prevents the escape of heat by radiation from 
the soil and consequent cooling of the ground during 
the night. But for the vapor of water in the air, 
we should have a frost every night in the year." 

"The old plan of a tub of water under the 
fruit tree, and a rope reaching from the tub into 
the branches, may serve a useful purpose. The 
evaporation from the water in the tub and of the 
water carried up by capillary action in the rope 
may spread the protecting folds of the water blanket 
over the tree. Such appliances, while of some use 
for a small garden, would be futile for a farm. 

* R. C. Kedzie, "Forecast of Frost," Lansing. Mich., 1892. 



Spraying to Prevent Frost. 109 

" If the hoed crops of the farm are cultivated 
with reference to securing a constant supply of 
moisture in the upper soil — to draw by capillary 
action of the soil upon the reservoir of water in 
the subsoil, and at the same time keep the surface 
soil in such condition as to prevent the too rapid 
dissipation of soil moisture — the fields may be 
saved from frost by a covering as impalpable as 
air but as effectual as eider-down. Here is a con- 
servatism of highest importance for both farmer 
and fruit - gro we r . 

"On the night of Sept. 16, 1868, the Indian corn 
in Michigan was almost entirely killed by frost, 
only a few fields along the banks of rivers or the 
borders of lakes being spared. In these fields the 
corn-stalks the next morning were dripping with 
dew. The evaporation from river or lake during 
this dry time (only one -eighth inch of rain in two 
weeks) had moistened the air in their vicinity and 
stayed off the frost. Away from bodies of water 
the air was very dry and the dew-point low. At 
the Agricultural College the temperature in the 
open air at 2 P. M. Sept. 16, was 54° F., the wet 
bulb marked 44°, and the temperature of dew-point 
was 31° F. During the night the temperature 
sank to 24° F. and a Mjlack frost' was the result. 
If the air over the whole state had been as moist 
as it was along those rivers and lakes, a heavy 
dew would have fallen everywhere, and the corn 
crop spared . 

"This immunity from frost afforded by a moist 



110 77/6 Principles of Frwif -growing. 

atmosphere is a matter of great importance. 1 
once read in a newspaper of the experience of a 
farmer who feared a frost on his growing corn, 
and who cultivated the field, stirring up a moister 
soil, and thus promoting evaporation, with this 
result, a heavj^ dew and a rescued crop, while 
neighboring fields of corn were cut by frost. 

"Ten years ago some beautiful beds of coleus 
were near my house. Early in October there were 
threatenings of frost. Every evening the beds were 
thoroughly wet down with cold water, and the 
tender coleus plants escaped frost while other plants 
near by were killed. At this time I found my 
neighbor one evening putting blankets over his 
grape vine to save the fruit from frost. I advised 
him to take away his woolen blankets and put on 
the water blanket by a thorough drenching with 
water. This was done and the grapes were saved. 

"This use of water to guard tender plants from 
frost has frequently been used at the College, and 
generally with good results. Strawberries and 
grapes in blossom may be saved in this waj^ and 
with little trouble, if a good supply of water 
and a sprinkling hose are available. The quick- 
witted farmer or gardener will find many ways of 
using w^ater for this purpose. With irrigation, we 
might defy frost during the growing season." 

A systematic plan for evaporating water in 
orange groves in California, in frosty weather, has 
been proposed by Finkle.* It is estimated that 

♦California Fruit-grower, Feb. 8 and 29, 1896. 



Smudges for Frosts. ]11 

efficient appliances for evaporating water could be 
secured for about $15 an acre for the first cost. 
"The amount of water required to raise the temper- 
ature in the space immediately surrounding a ten- 
acre tract would be about 500 gallons. This I have 
demonstrated by a very complete mathematical cal- 
culation based on experiments, but I have concluded 
that it would require about four or five attempts 
during a night, in order to supply the heat radiat- 
ing into space, which would make the water re- 
quired to be spent for a ten -acre grove, about 
2,500 gallons. * >i< * * "phe fuel required is 
equally certain and capable of calculation, and would 
be about one barrel of oil, costing in Los Angeles 
50 cents." 

The making of smudges. — Frosts occur on clear" 
nights. This is because the earth's heat radiates 
quickly into space. When clouds or fogs are pres- 
ent, this radiation is checked. It is possible, in 
many cases, to supply a blanket of smoke to check 
radiation ; and if this cover also contains much 
vapor of water, its efficiency will thereby be greatly 
increased. 

The use of smoke or smudges to protect plants 
from frost is an old practice. It is necessary, in 
order to secure the greatest protection, that the 
smudge be dense and uniform, and especially that 
it be maintained until all danger of frost is past. 
The best results are nearly always secured on level 
lands, where the smoke will not drain away, and 
where there are no higher lands from which the 



112 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

cold air may settle. The best smudges are usually 
made by burning some tar -like substance. In any 
case, a smouldering fire is much better than a 
blaze. The fire should burn slowly, and attendants 
should keep the smudge going all night. Wet 
leaves, manure, saw- dust, brush, grass, crude oil, and 
a variety of materials are in use for smudges. 
Some grape - growers cut the trimmings into short 
lengths and pile them in the vineyard, expecting 
to use them if frost should threaten. If frost does 
not occur, the piles are burned before tillage is be- 
gun. Crude petroleum stored in barrel -like tanks 
or receptacles is sometimes conducted through the 
plantation in pipes, and kettles arc filled (and 
ignited) at intervals. Galloway* says that a mix- 
ture of one part gas -tar and two parts saw -dust 
makes an excellent material for a smudge. 

Hammon writes as follows upon the use of 
smudges : " One method of diminishing radiation 
which is of considerable value, especially in a level 
country, is the obscuring of the sky by means of 
the smoke of smudge fires. This method has been 
used with success in the level wheat fields of the 
Dakotas and Manitoba, and should be of about 
equal value in the broad interior vallej^s of Cali- 
fornia. It is not so successful in the narrow val- 
leys of a hilly country, for while it retards the 
radiation of heat in the valley, the smoke bank is 
asually of low elevation, and radiation proceeds un- 

*Year Book, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1895, 155. 



1 



Fuel for Smudges. 113 

interruptedly from the hillsides, whence the cooled 
air flows down into the valley underneath the smoke 
and chills the plants. Damp straw, tar, turpentine, 
old hay, anything that will result in the greatest 
amount of smoke, will serve as fuel for these fires. 
Have the fuel on the ground in advance, and start 
the fires while the temperature is several degrees 
above the danger point. 

^'It is believed that decidedly better results will 
})e attained if damp fuel is used, or if the fire be 
sprayed with water, for this will add vapor to the 
air which, in condensing, will assist in checking 
radiation by obscuring the sky with fog or cloud, 
and at the same time the dew-point will be raised 
to the temperature of the air. This plan should 
result in absolutely preventing injury if the tem- 
perature be much above the danger point, for the 
condensation of the vapor will continue to distribute 
heat throughout the space occupied by the mist. 
In the case of smudge fires, the fire warms and 
expands the air near it, causing it to rise. This 
establishes an upward current of warm air from 
the fire, which conducts the heat of the fire upward 
and beyond the space needing protection, and cool 
air flows in from the sides to take its place. Thus 
the heat of the fire has but little effect in dimin- 
ishing the intensity of the frost, almost the entire 
protection being gained by the blanket of smoke 
produced. By spraying the fire, on the other hand, 
a large portion of the heat of the fire is consumed 
in evaporating the water which, rising from the 



114 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

fire^ is quickly condensed as it comes in contact 
with the surrounding air. The heat of condensation 
thus becomes manifest in the lower air. The heat 
of the fire is thus in a measure trapped and dis- 
tributed throughout the lower stratum of the air, 
and greatly aids in protecting the plants. Every 
quart of water thus evaporated and again con- 
densed in the surrounding air would be sufficient 
to raise the temperature ten degrees throughout a 
space eighty feet square and deep." 

Smudges have long been used in the vineyards 
of parts of Europe. A sketch of some of the 
practices may add to the interest of this discussion.* 
"Protection from frost is often secured by the use 
of smudges, namely, piles or bundles of such stuff 
as will produce a great smoke while burning. They 
are placed around the field and lighted at the ap- 
proach of frost, and the smoke which arises from 
trees hanging over the fields, will, after the man- 
ner of clouds, tend to keep the escaping heat near 
the earth. Pliny is said to have recommended the 
practice, and as early as the sixteenth century it 
was advised by the great French agriculturist, Olivier 
de Serres, who wrote: 'Frost is repelled from the 
vine if, foreseeing it, you produce in various parts 
of your vineyard thick smokes by means of wet 
straw or half -rotten manures. These sunder the air 
and dissolve the nuisance. * * * * Prepare 
them in good season by building here and there in 
your fields little piles of the above mentioned matters, 

* Prepared by my student, W. S. Andrews, B. A. 



i 



Smudging in Europe. 115 

which shall be lighted without delay whenever nec- 
essary.' The practice was obligatory in at least one 
part of Germany at the end of the last centur3^ 
In Mr. Heguilus' pamphlet* is quoted a set of regu- 
lations, issued in the Bailiwick of Pforzheim (Grand 
Duchy of Baden) in 1796, which provides that the 
inhabitants of the communes shall be divided into 
companies of twelve or eighteen men, under a chief, 
to operate in districts assigned them by an official 
inspector, and provides for a system of night watch- 
men, whose duty it was to give warning of the 
necessity for lighting the fires. 'Whoever of the in- 
habitants,' Article VII. of these regulations reads, 
'shall refuse to obey, shall be prosecuted l)efore the 
bailiff and receive exemplary punishment.' Bous- 
singault found the custom among the Indians of 
Peru, who inherited it from the pre -Spanish civili- 
zation. 

"Various substitutes for the bundles of straw, and 
such primitive smudges, have been proposed, and a 
number of patented compositions are on the French 
market. Mr. A. Lippens, of Ghent, in a letter, 
describes several of them. He writes: 

"'Generally they' [/. e., the French vine -grow- 
ers] 'use three bundles of small fagots, in which 
they insert half-dried hay and wet straw. A line 
of about fifty suffices for a hundred acres.' The 
cost is about ten cents an acre. 'More enlightened 
vine -growers use the heavy oils of coal gas from 

♦Precede Heguilus, " La Vigne et les gelees printanieres." Lodeve (H6rault), 
1891. 



116 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

which the pitch has been taken. About four -fifths 
of a quart is placed in a flat iron -ware dish. Ten 
of these will protect a vineyard of one hundred 
acres; twenty, one of four hundred acres. The dishes 
are to be set closer together at the two ends of 
the line than in the middle, and a supply of oil 
must be held read.y in reserve in case that, on ac- 
count of wind or of great clearness at sunrise, 
another firing should be found necessary.' 

"M. Lestout, of Bordeaux, has an invention, as 
described in his pamphlet, as follows: 'It consists 
of little cubical boxes, twenty centimeters (a little 
less than eight inches) square, weighing seven kilos 
(fifteen pounds four ounces), and costing about 
seventy -five centimes (fifteen cents) apiece. These are 
placed around the field to be protected at a distance 
of ten meters (thirty -two feet ten inches) apart, and 
are easily ignited from a torch. The fire emits a 
black smoke, which can be rendered more dense by 
pouring water upon the smudges. After awhile, the 
columns of smoke fuse into a thick cloud, which 
settles upon the field, and elevates the temperature by 
two or three degrees. The fires can be instantly put 
out by an extinguisher.' M. Lestout declares that 
three hundred smudges, costing two hundred and 
twenty-five francs (forty-five dollars), will protect a 
vineyard three thousand meters square — i. e., one 
containing nine hundred hectares (about two thou- 
sand two hundred acres) — namely, at a cost of 
twenty -five centimes (five cents) per two and one- 
half acres. 



Frpnrh Smiidgps. 117 

"The system of LagTolet is said to give a very 
dense,' heavy and persistent cloud. The composition 
is delivered in barrels, the contents of which are in 
a solid mass, which mnst be broken np into pieces. 
Three of these are leaned together like a tripod, in 
little hollows in the ground, about fifteen yards apart. 

"In the Andibert system, the snnidges are made 
b}' a mixture of tar, creosote and sawdust — easily 
made and easy to use. There is a system of Tanzin, 
and others, the details of which it is not necessary 
now to discuss. 

"Lestout advertises that he is able to furnish a 
system of devices by which warning is given of 
approaching frost, or l)y which the smudges can be 
fired automatically, when the mercury descends to 
a certain degree. Heguilus has also invented a 
system of signals and lighters. It is not necessary 
to dwell upon either of these, further than to re- 
mark in passing that a system of automatic lighting 
will not fulfill its full purpose, unless it is so ar- 
ranged that it will light the fires on the side of the 
field from which the air is moving. Otherwise one 
may have the satisfaction of protecting his neigh- 
bor's vineyard and not his own. To secure the 
maximum protection, the proprietors should join in 
a common effort to protect a whole district at once, 
as Lestout recommends; and this, it appears from 
his pamphlet, is being done in France. He gives 
the statutes of a syndicate formed in 1890 by one 
hundred and fifteen proprietors in the district of 
Moulis, Medoc — which make pretty complete pro- 



118 The Prmciples of Fruit-growing. 

vision for joint action — and quotes a letter from 
their treasurer, in which it is stated that the cost 
of guaranteeing two million vines for a year was 
one and a quarter francs (twenty -five cents) per 
thousand vines. He gives a letter from another 
syndicate of sixty proprietors at Saussac, in the 
Medoc, describing a successful attempt to keep the 
frost from their vines on April 27, 1888. The wires 
attaching the vines were coated with ice. It was 
decided to light the smudges at two o'clock in 
the morning, when one hundred and thirty were 
lighted, placed at a distance apart of twelve meters 
(a little under forty feet), thus extending along a 
line one thousand five hundred and fifty meters (not 
quite a mile) long. The report states that not only 
the vineyards, but everything that frost ordinarily 
destroys, fields of clover, potatoes, peas, everything, 
in fact, covered by the cloud, from the line of 
smudges extending back to a depth of three thou- 
sand meters (say two and three -fourth miles), cover- 
ing a surface of five hundred and fifty hectares (one 
thousand three hundred and seventy -five acres), was 
saved, while the fields not covered by the cloud suf- 
fered from the effects of the frost on that same da}-. 
The one hundred and thirty smudges were only two- 
thirds burnt, and the cost was estimated at thirteen 
centimes (less than three cents) a hectare (two and 
one-half acres). Some of Lestout's correspondents 
express the hope that a law will be passed pro- 
viding that when two -thirds of the proprietors of 
a district elect to form a syndicate, they will be 



Smoking French Vineyards. 



119 



able to assess their pro-rata share upon such inhabi- 
tants of the districts as refuse to join, and that 
these assessments may be collected by the tax- 
gatherer, a provision which it would be easier to in- 
troduce and enforce in France, perhaps, than in this 
country." Fig. 10 is an illustration of the protec- 
tion of a vineyard, from Lestout.* 




Fig. 10. Smudge over a French vineyard. 



currents of air. — Since frosts occur on 
still nights, it is sometimes possible to prevent 
them by keeping the air in motion, thereby mixing 
the air and preventing any part of it from lying 
on the plant until it shall have become frost -cold 
by loss of radiated heat. In small areas, as in 
choice gardens, it is often feasible to employ a man 
at night to pass back and forth waving a large 



*The Lestout system has been used at Cornell with satisfaction. 



120 The Prinriplfs of Fruit- growing. 

fan. A windmill may sometimes be set in motion 
by water-power or other means. 

Heating the air. — It is sometimes possible to di- 
rectly heat the air by means of large fires, although 
such practice does not seem to have generally met 
with encouraging results. In the combined smoke 
and vapor smudges which have been commended by 
Hammon (page 112), the heat of the fire may add 
something to the efficiency of the protection. The 
strong currents of air which are set up by heavj' 
fires seldom aid in the protection of the plantation. 
Yet there are cases in which hot fires have saved 
trees over considerable areas from heavy frosts and 
even from freezes. One of the best experiences in 
this direction is reported from Florida by Davies.* 
In the freeze of February, 1895, he was able to 
raise the temperature in his grove from 18 degrees 
to 33 degrees by means of fires. "On the north 
and west sides of your grove have what are called 
conflagrations, big fires, that will send billows of 
heat rolling between and over your tree tops ; and 
all through your groves, at short distances, have 
small fires to help on the good result." Mr. Davies 
recommends that orange growers "get ready, and keep 
ready all the time, for the freeze. Once it has come, 
there will be no time for gathering materials for fire. 
Your fuel must be on hand, and plenty of it." It 
is then necessary to keep the fires burning vigor- 
ously until the cold spell has passed. H. R. Ste- 

*D. O. Davies, "Protecting Orange Groves from Cold," Fla. State Hort. 
See. 1896, 28, 



Foref piling Frosts. 121 

vens, on the .same occasion, reports success in sav- 
ing orange trees from cold by burning rosin, secur- 
ing both heat and smoke. He makes cones six 
inches high and six wide of {;ommon hardware paper 
which has received a coat of paint. These cones 
are filled with cheap rosin and set near the trees. 
A little of the rosin is pulverized on top, and it 
is then set on fire from a bit of oiled waste which 
is dropped on it. Six pounds of rosin burn about 
an hour. 

THE PREDICTION OP PR08T. 

In considering the means of predicting frost, it 
is first of all important that the student should ob- 
tain a clear idea of the usual or average dates of 
the opening and closing of the seasons of his locality. 
Records made by himself upon his own farm from 
year to year are invaluable. He may derive very 
much help, also, from the records of meteorological 
bureaus. A general tabulation of spring and fall 
seasons (see pages 123 and 124) may be suggestive 
in this connection:* 

"The data for the accompanying tabulation of 
the killing frosts of the region east of the Rockj^ 
Mountains was compiled from the bulletins and an- 
nual reports of the United States Weather Bureau. 
The table is divided into dates for spring and fall, 
and these in turn into earliest, latest, and average 

♦Made by Alexander D. MacGillivray, Assistant in Entomology, Cornell Uni- 
versity, 



122 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

dates. By 'earliest' is not meant the first frost in 
the spring, but the earliest date at which the season 
has opened, while when applied to the fall it is the 
first actual occurrence of a frost. By 'latest' is 
meant the last occurrence of a killing frost in the 
spring, and in the fall the latest date at which the 
season has closed. The average date is in most 
cases the mean of average dates given by the Weather 
Bureau. 

"The states have been grouped into three regions, 
the states of the coast plain, the states of the Ohio 
River basin and its adjuncts, and the states of the 
Missouri River and its adjuncts. The first thought 
in separating the states into these regions was that 
they represented distinct faunal regions, and that 
they probably represented distinct climatal regions. 
This has been sustained in most part. The most 
marked cases are eastern New York, or the Hud- 
son Valley, and western New York, the former be- 
longing to the coast states and the latter to the 
Ohio valley states. There is a difference of eleven 
days in the spring on earliest dates, twelve days 
on latest, and two days on average ; Pennsylvania, 
which falls in the same category, in the spring, 
fifty -four days on earliest, eleven days on latest, and 
twenty days on average dates. In the other regions 
the difference is not so marked, and yet there is 
some difference in all cases. 

"This tabulation is of interest in showing the 
earliest and latest dates at which the seasons have 
opened, for some of the data is based on records 



Records of Frosts. 



123 



Tabulation of Seasonal Changes, with Special Reference 
TO Killing Frosts. 



Spring. 



Coast States. 



Maine \ Mar. 24 

New Hampshire.] April 19 

I 
Vermont April 8 

Massachusetts . . . Mar. 26 

Rhode Island \ Mar. 8 

I 
Connecticut Mar. 3 

E. New York Mar. 15 

New Jersey Feb. 27 



Pennsylvania. 



Mar. 



Maryland , Mar. 1 

i. 



Delaware Mar. 19 

Virginia Feb. 5 

North Carolina.. Jan. 3 

South Carolina.. Jan. 4 

Georgia Feb. 2 

Florida JDec. 7 

Alabama Dec. 27 



Mississippi 
Louisiana. . 
Texas 



Jan. 16 
Jan. 12 
Dec. 16 



Latest. 


June 19 


June 


9 


June 


3 


May 


28 


May 


7 


May 


30 


May 


27 


May 


21 


May 


22 


May 


9 


April 


12 


May 


17 


May 


24 


May 


8 


April 


16 


April 


7 


April 


25 


April 


10 


Mar. 


31 


April 13 



April 30 
May 6 
May 10 
April 20 
Mar. 31 
April 28 
April 23 
April 13 
April 5 
April 9 
April 8 
April 11 
April 5 
Feb. 23 



Fall. 



Mar. 


16 


Jan. 


18 


Mar. 


22 


Mar. 


6 


Feb. 


23 


Feb. 


25 


Jan. 


21 


Mar. 


25 



Earliest. 


Latest. 


Sept. 


4 


Nov. 


2 


Aug. 


7 


Oct. 


30 


Aug. 


5 


Nov. 


16 


Aug. 


8 


Nov. 


23 


Oct. 


3 


Dec. 


28 


Sept. 


10 


Nov. 


16 


Oct. 


11 


Nov. 


18 


Sept. 


10 


Nov. 


21 


Sept. 


16 


Nov. 


6 


Sept. 


10 


Nov. 


14 


Oct. 


23 


Oct. 


31 


Aug. 


26 


Dec. 


10 


Sept. 


9 


Dec. 


29 


Oct. 


15 


Dec. 


15 


Oct. 


7 


Dec. 


10 


Oct. 


31 


Feb. 


6 


Oct. 


12 


Dec. 


26 


Oct. 


8 


Dec. 


27 


Sept. 


21 


Dec. 


29 


Sept. 


12 


Dec. 


27 



Sept. 4 
Oct. -A 
Sept. 20 
Sept. 11 
Nov. 20 
Oct. 2 
Oct. 28 
Oct. 10 
Oct. 20 
Oct. 4 
Oct. 25 
Oct. 13 
Oct. IT) 
Oct. 25 

Nov. 3 

Nov. 7 
Dec. 24 
Oct. 28 

Oct. .30 

Dec. 7 

Oct. 17 



124 



The PrincAples of Fruit-growing. 



Tabulation of Seasonal Changes, with Special Reference 
TO Killing Frosts. 



(►hio Vallet 




Spring. || Fal 


L. 


States. 


Earliest. 


Latest. 


Average. Earliest. 

ii 


Latest, i Average. 

1 


W. New York . . . 


Mar. 


26 


June 8 


Apri! 25 1 Aug. 8 

ii 


Nov. 


21 


Sept. 20 


Michigan 


Mar. 


2 


June 29 


May 5 [Aug. 2 


Oct. 


29 


Sept. 18 


Wisconsin 


Apri 


7 


June 12 May 1 


Aug. 22 


Nov. 


13 


Sept. 25 


Pennsylvania 


May 


20 


June 4 


April 25 


Aug. 30 


Nov. 


14 


Sept. 28 


Ohio 


Feb 


'^1 


June 1'^ 


April 20 
April 12 


Sept. 2 
Sept. 14 


Nov 


15 


Sept. 30 
Oct. 15 


Indiana 


Mar. 


2:5 


May 28 


Dec. 


24 


Illinois 


Feb. 


28 


June 1 


April 15 


Aug. 2 


Nov. 


28 


Sept. .30 


West Virginia. . . 


Apri 


1 


May 17 


April 20 


Sept. 22 


Nov. 


22 


Oct. 25 


Kentucky 


:VIar. 


10 


May 30 


Api-il 7 


Sept. 24 


Nov. 


20 


Oct. 15 


Tennessee 


Jan. 


25 


May 15 


April 1 


Sept. 14 


Nov. 


29 


Oct. 15 


Missouri Val- 


















ley States. 


















Minnesota 


Apri 


I 6 


June 8 


April 2B 


Aug. 4 


Oct. 


21 


Sept. 29 


Dakota 


Mar. 


15 


June 30 


May 15 


Aug. 4 


Oct. 


28 


Sept. 10 


Iowa 


Mar. 


4 


June 2 


April 20 


Aug. 8 


Oct. 


28 


Sept. 20 


Nebraska 


Mar. 


28 


June 7 


April 20 


Aug. 30 


Nov. 


9 


Oct. 10 


Missouri 


Feb. 


'^7 


May 26 
May 22 


April 15 
April 12 


Sept. 2 
Sept. 6 


Nov 


19 


Oct 9 


Kansas 


Mar. 


16 


Nov. 


9 


Oct. 5 


Colorado 


Mar. 


29 


June 28 


xMay 2 


Aug. 7 


Oct. 


26 


Sept. 5 


Arkansas 


Feb. 


22 


April 28 


Mar. 27 


Oct. 6 


Dec. 


4 


Oct. 27 


Indian Territory. 


Feb. 


5 


May 23 


Mar. 22 


Sept. 30 


Dec. 


7 


Oct. 20 



Rpcords of Frost. 125 

of fifty years or more ; in showing the effects of 
adjacent bodies of water ; in the effects of topog- 
raphy, and in situation. 

"The effect of topography is shown well in the 
cases already cited, eastern and western New York 
and Pennsylvania. It is equally true of Virginia 
and West Virginia, and North Carolina and Ten- 
nessee. The effect of situation is shown markedly 
in the case of Maine, which is north of New 
Hampshire and Vermont, and yet earlier. Georgia's 
season opens twenty -one days later than South Car- 
olina's, and ten days later than Alabama's, while 
North Carolina is ten days later." 

The liability of auy particular locality to injury 
from late spring or early fall frosts is capable of 
being expressed in charts or by other graphic 
means. Very good records of the habitual frosti- 
ness of any place could be made bj^ an army of 
careful growers who had neither a barometer nor a 
thermometer. Let us suppose, for instance, that the 
peach -growers of a certain geographical area were 
to make ol>servations for a number of years upon 
the relative synchronisms of late frosts and bloom- 
ing-time, a subject which is of the most vital im- 
portance to every grower of the tender fruits. The 
tabulation of these observations would enable us to 
construct two series of curves, which would indicate 
at a glance the comparative safetj^ of any station 
for the cultivation of the given crop. We will 
suppose that observations have been taken for a 
number of years by various persons at seventeen 



126 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 





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to 

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'i;m<^C|[i)li,iaa;-,'^Se;<i:^fe;Oft,a' 



Fro.sf and Blooming Time. 127 

closely connected stations, represented b}^ the letters 
in the margin of the plate (page 126). One curve 
represents the date of the last killing frost, and 
the other the date of the opening of the peach 
flowers. Wherever the frost line lies beyond the 
bloom line, as in the first five stations, peach -grow- 
ing is impossible. When it lies at the left, peach- 
growing is possible, and the industry is safe in 
proportion as the two lines diverge. At the stations 
I, K, and O peach - growing may be considered to 
be far beyond danger of late frosts. These tabula- 
tions would be valuable, of course, in proportion as 
they include a minute record of every farm in the 
given territor3' ; but even a somewhat superficial 
series of observations would possess great value if 
accurately made, as indicating the probable influence 
of local climate upon the given industry. If lines 
tend to converge, or if the frost line crosses beyond 
the bloom line, there is indication, at least, that 
safe peach lands are few in those localities. The 
information which these records ask could be well 
ascertained from observations upon a few peach 
trees here and there long before any general experi- 
ment of cultivation had been tried. 

This method of study is a part of the science 
of phenology, or that science which treats of the 
periodical phenomena of animals and plants, as the 
migrations and nesting of birds, awakening of the 
frogs, and the dates of blooming and leafing of 
plants. Such records are more accurate measures of 
seasonal climates than instrumental measurements 



128 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

are. Some day the country will have charts of iso- 
phenal lines as well as of its isotherms. 

Local studies of this type must eventually come 
to be an important province of meteorological 
bureaus. Every state must ultimately be completely 
charted not only in respect to liability to frosts, but 
to other incidents of local climate and weather. 

The most reliable prediction of frost is given by 
readings from the wet- and dry -bulb thermometer, 
which measures the moisture in the air. Kedzie 
gives the following description of tliis thermometer:* 
"The sling psychrometer is a formidable name, but 
a simple instrument. It (consists essentially of two 
thermometers, the Imlb of one being left naked and 
kept dry, the bulb of the other being covered with a 
thin layer of cloth which is kept wet (Svet-bulb') 
during the time of an observation. By placing these 

'drj'-bulb' and 'wet -bulb' thermometers side by 
side and comparing their readings, we may determine 
the amount of cold produced by evaporation, and thus 
measure the relative dryness of the air. If there is 
no evaporation the two thermometers will show the 
same temperature, l)ut any evaporation will produce 
cold, and the more rapid the evaporation the greater 
the reduction of temperature. Tlie di-ier the air the 
more rapid the evaporation, and the greater the cold 
caused \)y evaporation. The psychrometer, or the 

'wet- and dry -bulb thermometer,' affords the means 
for determining the amount of moisture in the air, 

*See also Horticulturist's Rule-Book, 4th ed., 'J22. 



The Sling Psychrometer. 129 

and the temperature of complete saturation or dew- 
point, by measuring the reduction of temperature by 
evaporation . 

"A sling psychrometer can easily be made, as fol- 
lows : For the frame, take a board eighteen inches 
long, two inches wide, and one -half inch thick, with 
a hole bored in one end to hang the apparatus on a 
nail when not in use. Get two all -glass thermom- 
eters with cylindrical bulbs, and the degrees Fahren- 
heit engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one 
thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, 
fastening it securely by a thread. When this cloth 
covering is wet with water and exposed to evapo- 
ration in the air, it constitutes the 'wet -bulb ther- 
mometer ' ; the other thermometer has no covering 
on its bulb, is not wet at any time, and constitutes 
the Mry-bulb thermometer'. 

"Securely lash the thermometers on opposite edges 
of the narrow board, leaving the graduations on 
them plainly in sight, and the bulbs extending a 
short distance below the end of the board. To 
use the instrument, wet the cloth -covered bulb with 
water, leaving the other bulb dry, and then swing 
the apparatus freely through the air for three to 
five minutes, or until the wet -bulb thermometer 
ceases to fall in temperature, and then read the 
temperature of each thermometer. Unless the air 
is saturated with moisture the wet -bulb will always 
show a lower temperature than the dry -bulb. Sub- 
tract the degrees of wet -bulb from those of the 
dry -bulb, and the remainder will show the degrees 
J 



130 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



of cold produced by evaporation. Suppose the dry 
bulb marks 65° F., and the wet bulb 56°, then 

65° — 56° =9°, or the 
cold produced by evapora- 
tion. This swinging and 
reading of the pyschrom- 
eter are done in the shade 
in the open air when the 
temperature of dew-point 
is sought ; it should be 
done rapidly and the ther- 
mometers read promptly 
The dry -bulb gives the 
temperature of the open 
air, and dew-point is de- 
termined by reference to 
tabulated figures." A com- 
mon form of psychrometer 
is shown in Fig. 11, but 
inasmuch as this has a cup 
of water connected with 
the wet-bulb, it is not so 
handy for whirling. Such 
an instrument may be 
fanned instead of whirled. 
Hammon gives the fol- 
lowing directions and fig- 
ures for determining the 
dew-point : " To obtain 
the dew-point from the wet -and dry -bulb hygrom- 
eter or psychrometer, moisten the muslin on the 




Fig. 11. One form of wet- and dry- 
bulb thermometer. 



Finding the Dew-point. 



131 



wet -bulb and then whirl or fan the instrument, 
when the temperature will fall. Continue the ven- 
tilation until the wet -bulb thermometer ceases to fall, 
when the two thermometers should be read. Subtract 
the reading of the wet -bulb thermometer from that of 
the dry. Find this difference in the column at the 
left of the table. The dew-point will then be 
found at the intersection of the line opposite this 
difference and the column which is headed by the 
number nearest the air temperature (dry -bulb 
reading). Examples are given below: 

" Dry-bulb thermometer 55° 

Wet-bulb thermometer 44° 

Difference 11° 

Dew-point from table 30° " 

The dew-point is the temperature at which the deposition of dew be- 
gins. Frost is formed when the dew-point and freezing-point coincide 
(that is. at 32°). The nearer the dew-point approaches the freezing-point 
at nightfall, the greater is the danger of frost during the night. When 
the dew-point is 10° above freezing-point at nightfall (42°), there is little 
danger of frost; but when it is less than this, frost may be expected. 

"DEW-POINT TABLE. 



Difference of reading of 
dry and wet bulbs 



Temperature of Air — Fahrenheit. 



20° 


25° 


30° 


35° 


40° 


45° 


50° 


16 


22 


27 


32 


38 


43 


48 


12 


18 


24 


30 


35 


41 


46 


7 


14 


21 


27 


33 


39 


44 


1 


10 


17 


24 


30 


36 


42 




4 


13 


20 


27 


33 


40 






7 


16 


24 


30 


37 






1 


11 


20 


27 


34 








5 


16 

11 

4 


24 
20 
16 
11 
4 


31 
28 
25 
21 
17 
11 
5 






CHAPTER III. 

THE TILLAGE OF FRUIT LANDS. 

The study of the evolution of the ideas respect- 
ing the tillage of the soil opens one of the most 
interesting chapters in history. The subject is all 
the more suggestive because tillage is such a com- 
monplace and almost universal labor that no one 
thinks of it as having had a history. Yet the 
practice of the simple stirring of the soil has been 
slowly evolved, like all other methods and institutions, 
through a long period of time, and as the result of 
many forces which were unobserved or even unknown 
at the time. We think of tillage as a custom ; and 
if one considers the condition of farming at the 
present moment, he would seem to be warranted 
in such an association, for a custom is a habit 
which is not suggested by reason and inquiry. Per- 
haps the onl}^ reason which most persons could give 
for the tillage of the land is that they are obliged 
to do it. It would seem to be the simplest and dull- 
est thing to till the soil. It is simply the driving of 
the animal and the holding of the plow, or taking 
care that the harrow scarifies the entire surface ; or 
it may be only the stubborn wielding of the hoe or 
rake. This view of the matter is wholly correct 

(133) 



134 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

when one thinks of tillage only as labor. The work 
must be done because, somehow, plants thrive best 
when it is done ; but the sooner it is done and the 
less there is of it the easier, and what is the easier is 
the better. 

It was, no doubt, some such mind as this which 
dominated the rude farmers in the early history of 
the race Throughout all the years until now — and, 
unfortunately, too often even now — tillage has been 
a mere necessity forced upon the husbandman by a 
most ungenerous Nature. The first tillage probably 
arose from necessity of breaking the earth to get 
the seed into it ; and the second step was the dig- 
ging out of other plants which interfered with its 
growth. In many cases, still another hardship was 
imposed, for the earth must be disturbed to get the 
crop out of it. These three necessities served to keep 
the surface of tamed lands in a greater or less state 
of agitation until it finally came to be seen that 
there is something in the practice which causes plants 
to thrive wholly aside from the lessening of the con- 
flict with weeds. But it is only in the last century 
or two that there appears to have been any serious 
attempt to discover why this age-long practice of 
stirring the soil is such a decided benefit to plants. 

One reason why the art of tillage has made such 
slow progress is because it seems to be wholly con- 
trary to the operations of nature. In very recent 
years it has been vehemently proclaimed that the 
proper treatment of an orchard is to plant it thick 
and to allow the leaves and litter to cover the 



Forest and Orchard Unlike. 135 

ground, wholly omitting the stirring of the soil, for 
this is the method of the forest ; and forest lands 
increase in fertility from year to year and the mois- 
ture is held in them as in a sponge. The reason- 
ing is plausible. There are two ways of testing it, — 
by experience and by reflection. It needs only to 
be suggested that the experiment has been tried, and 
is now trying, upon an extended scale, as a large 
part of the apple orchards of the country testify. 
The chief beneficiaries of the experiment are the 
bugs, mice and fungi, all of which would vote the 
method a success. The reasons why the forest 
method is successful are because the trees stand so 
thickly that the earth is protected from the drying 
effect of sun and winds, the forest cover is so ex- 
tensive as to produce a climate of its own, all the 
product is .returned to the soil, and there is no 
haste. In every one of these essentials the orchard 
is unlike the forest. Those writers who urge that 
the orchard be planted thick enough to imitate the 
forest condition, should also make it clear how the 
insects and fungi are to be kept at bay, or how 
acceptable fruit can be obtained upon trees which 
are unpruned and unthinned. The objects to be 
attained in the forest and in the orchard are wholly 
unlike. In one case it is the perpetuation of the 
species, and there results a severe conflict for exist- 
ence, in which more plants die than reach maturity; 
in the other it is the securing of an abnormal pro- 
duct of the plant, — a product which can be kept up 
to its abnormal or artificial development only by 



136 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

abnormal conditions, — and the struggle for existence 
is reduced to its lowest terms, for it is desired that 
not a single plant be lost. It is simply because it 
is impossible to imitate the forest conditions that 
the forest methods cannot be followed in fruit 
plantations. 

Now that we have come to understand why and 
how it is that the stirring of the soil makes plants 
thrive, the old-time drudgery of tillage becomes the 
most important, the most suggestive, and therefore 
the most difficult to properly understand and perform, 
of all purely farming operations. If we cannot have 
the protection of the forest cover and the forest 
mulch, we must make a mulch for the occasion ; 
and if we wait impatiently for results, we must un- 
lock the granaries of the soil more rapidly than 
nature does. We must till for tillage's sake, and 
not wait to be forced into the operation — as men 
have generally been — by the weeds ; yet, whilst we 
have outgrown the need of weeds, we should not 
despise them, but remember them kindly for the 
good which they have done the race. They have 
been an inexorable priesthood, holding us to duty 
whilst we did not know what duty was, and they 
still stand ready to extend their paternal offices. 

Coming, now, to the specific question of the till- 
age of fruit lands, one is struck with the fact that 
all kinds of fruits are commonly more productive 
than the apple ; and a moment's reflection brings 
to mind the fact that the apple alone is the fruit 
which is commonly raised in sod, and which every- 



Old and New Methods, 137 

where receives the least attention. The presumption 
is at once raised, therefore, that this sod and neg- 
lect are in some vital way associated with the de- 
clining productiveness of apple trees. In order to 
put ourselves right upon the question, we must first 
of all ascertain, if we can, why the apple is of all 
fruits the most neglected. 

My older readers will recall the fact that until 
recent years the effort of the farmer has been di- 
rected to the growing of hay, grain and stock. 
Previous to this generation, the growing of fruit 
has been a matter of secondary or even incidental 
importance. A bit of rocky or waste land, or an 
odd corner about the buildings, was generally given 
over to the apple orchard, and if the trees received 
any attention whatever it was after all other de- 
mands of the farm had been satisfied. All this was 
particularly true of the farming previous to the 
second third of this century, and the apple and 
standard pear orchards of the country still record 
the old method. It has required at least a genera- 
tion of men in which to thoroughly establish any 
new agricultural system, and the time is not yet 
fully arrived for the passing out of the old orchards 
and the coming in of the new. In other fruits than 
apples and standard pears, the generations of trees 
are comparatively short-lived, and those fruits sooner 
feel the effect of new agricultural teachings. Vine- 
yards, and orchards of plums, dwarf pears, apricots, 
cherries and quinces, have mostly come into exist- 
ence along with the transition movement from the 



138 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

old to the new farming, and they have been planted 
seriously, with the expectation of profit, the same as 
the grain crops have. Peaches had passed out in 
most parts of the east, and they are now coming 
in again with the new agriculture. At the present 
time, men buy farms for the sole purpose of raising 
fruit, a venture which would have been a novelty 
fifty years ago ; but the habit of imitation is so 
strong that the apple planter patterns after the old 
orchards which were grown under another and now 
a declining system of agriculture, and many of 
which are still standing on the old farms of the 
northeastern states. The apple orchard, therefore, 
upon the one hand, and the well -tilled vineyard upon 
the other, are the object lessons which illustrate 
the faults of non- tillage and the gains of tillage. 

THE PHILOSOPHY OF TILLAGE.* 

Tillage may be defined as the stirring of the soil 
for the direct purpose of making plants thrive. Its 
immediate effect is to ameliorate and modify the soil 
itself, but its secondary effects are those which are 
desired, and which are also intimately concerned in 
the welfare of the plant. For example, tillage is 
capable of lessening the capillarity of the surface 
soil, and from this there may • result a saving of 
moisture from evaporation, and it is the moisture 

*The reader who desires the fiillest and best expositioa of tillage in its va- 
rious aspects should consult "The Soil," by King, and "The Fertility of the 
Land," by Roberts. 



Benefits of Tillage. 139 

which is sought. For practical purposes, however, it 
is unnecessary to keep this distinction in mind, and 
we may classify the benefits of tillage under three 
general heads, arranging them approximately in their 
order of importance to the fruit-grower : 

1. Tillage improves the physical condition of the 
land, 

(a) By fining the soil, and thereby presenting 
greater feeding surface to the roots; 

(6) By increasing the depth of the soil, and 
thereby giving a greater foraging and root- 
hold area to the plant; 

(c) By warming and drying the soil in 
spring; 

(d) By reducing the extremes of temperature 
and moisture. 

2. Tillage may save moisture, 

(e) By increasing the water -holding capacity of 
the soil; 

(/) By checking evaporation. 

3. Tillage may augment chemical activities, 

(g) By aiding in setting free plant -food; 

(h) By promoting nitrification; 

(i) By hastening the decomposition of organic 

matter ; 
0) By extending these agencies (g, h, i) to 

greater depths of the soil. 

The simple statements of these offices of tillage is 
sufficient for the present occasion, except, perhaps, 
in respect to the improving of the texture of the 



140 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

soil and the conservation of the moisture, for if the 
cultivator is skilled in these latter matters, all the 
other benefits will follow. 

The texture of the soil. — The texture or physical 
condition of the soil is nearly always more important 
than its mere richness in plant -food. That is, the 
productivity of land is not determined wholly, and 
perhaps not even chiefly, by the amount of fertiliz- 
ing elements which it contains. This is particularly 
true of all lands — like the clays — which tend to be- 
come and to remain hard and unpleasant if left to 
themselves. Plant -food is of no consequence unless 
the plant can use it. The hardest rocks may con- 
tain various plant-foods in abundance, and yet plants 
cannot grow on them. A stick of wood contains 
potassium and phosphorus and nitrogen, and yet 
nothing grows upon it until it begins to decay. A 
hundred pounds of potash in a stone -hard lump is 
worth less to a given plant than an ounce in a 
state of fine division. Soils which the chemist may 
pronounce rich in plant -foods may grow poor crops.* 
In other words, the chemist can not tell what a soil 
will produce; he can only tell what it contains. 

All this is not surprising, when we come to think 
of it. Every good farmer knows that a hard and 
lumpy soil will not grow good crops, no matter how 
much plant -food it may contain. A clay soil which 
has been producing good crops for any number of 
years may be so seriously injured by one injudi 

♦ See, for example, Bull. 119, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Fertilizers vs. Tillage. 141 

cioiis plowing in a wet time as to rnin it for the 
growing of crops for tw^o or three years. The in- 
jury lies in the modification of its physical texture, 
not in the lessening of its fertility. A sandy soil 
may also be seriously impaired for the growing of 
any crop if the humus, or decaying organic matter, 
is allowed to burn out of it. It then becomes leaehy, 
it quickly loses its moisture, and it becomes ex- 
cessively hot in bright, sunny weather. Similar re- 
marks may be applied to all soils, although they 
are not equally true of all. 

If these remarks are true, then it follows that 
it is useless to apply commercial fertilizers to lands 
which are not in proper physical condition for the 
very best growth of crops. If potash, for example, 
were applied to hard lumps of claj', it could not be 
expected to aid in the growth of plants, because 
plants cannot grow on such a place. If the same 
quantity were applied to mellow soil, however, the 
greater part of it would be presented to the roots 
of plants at once, and its effects would no doubt 
be apparent in the season's crop. The improvement 
of the texture of the soil is not only a means of 
presenting the plant -foods to the roots of plants and 
of uniformly distributing what fertilizer may be ap- 
plied, but it is also a direct means of conserving 
moisture and of hastening chemical activities. 

The soil is a vast storehouse of plant -food, and 
the first effort of the husbandman should be to 
make this store available to plants. ''Men take him 
for a foole or a mad man that, having store of 



142 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

wealth ill his trunck, doth yet complain of want. 
What though the key be rusty for want of use? 
tis easier to get that scoured, then to obtaine such 
another treasure. And surely I may upon most sure 
grounds say, that our Native Countrey, hath in its 
bowels an (even almost) infinite, and inexhaustible 
treasure ; much of which hath long laine hid, and 
is but new begun to be discovered. It may seem a 
large hoast or meer Hyperbole to say, we enjoy not, 
know not, . use not, the one tenth part of that 
plenty or wealth & happinesse, that our Earth can, 
and (Ingenuity and Industry well encouraged) will 
(bj^ Gods blessing) yield."* 

The moisture of the soil. — Lands oftener need 
moisture in the growing season than they need fer- 
tilizers. The fact is that they generally need both, 
if the largest and best crops are to be secured. 
Drought seems to most people to be one of those 
calamities in which there are no secondary or inci- 
dental blessings, and it must be confessed that the 
lesson of the recurring droughts has not yet been 
learned by the great body of farmers. The one 
remedy which occurs to most persons is irrigation, 
and yet there is sufficient rainfall in most parts of 
the fruit-growing regions of the country to provide 
all the needs of large crops. The difficulties are 
that this rainfall comes when it seems not to be 
wanted, and very much of it is allowed to escape 
by evaporation. The truth is that the heavy rainfall 

♦Samuel Hartlib, "An Essay for Advancement of Husbandry-Learning," 
London, 1651, p. 3. 



Saving the Water. 143 

usually comes at the best season, for it is the period 
of inactivity, when the work of the farmer and the 
growth of the plants are least interfered with. If 
we, in the east and south, were perfectly certain that 
we should have no rain from June until September, 
we should carefully husband the rainfall of the 
earlier months, and we should suffer little loss ; but 
now that we expect rain all summer long, we neg- 
lect the saving of the early rains, and gamble upon 
the chance of having a rain when we shall need 
it. It often happens that the dry countries suffer 
least for water! 

How shall we save the water? By holding it in 
the earth. If the earth is finely divided and yet 
compact, the capillary pores or interstices will hold 
enormous quantities of water. If, then, we break 
up these interstices next the atmosphere, we shall 
prevent the water from passing off by evaporation. 
The whole subject of the saving of moisture, there- 
fore, falls into two means, the catching and holding 
of it (or the making of a reservoir), and the pre- 
vention of evaporation. It is, therefore, a question 
of plowing and then of surface tilling. It will thus 
be seen how futile it may be to try to save the 
water by beginning tillage late in the season, when 
a drought is threatened. If the land has not been 
well prepared, there may be no water to save by 
that time. It may either have run through the 
land into the drains, or it may have evaporated 
long before the farmer saw the need of saving it. 

The hard-pan may be so near the surface that but 



144 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

little water coudd get into the land; the dish -pan 
was shallow, and the early rains made mud -puddles 
or passed off over the surface. Upon such lands, 
deep plowing is necessary, in order to break up the 
hard-pan and to increase the storage capacity of 
the soil. If the land is open and leachy, shallow 
plowing may be necessary, else the soil may be loos- 
ened too much. And the water -storage capacity of 
most soils may be increased by putting humus — or 
decaying organic matter — into them. It will thus 
be seen that the methods of conserving or saving 
moisture must be worked out — or rather thought 
out — by each farmer for his own farm. 

The water of rains and snows is held upon the 
surface for the time, and allowed to percolate into 
the soil, if the land is rough and open from recent 
plowing, if there is a cover of herbage upon the 
land, or if the surface is soft and mellow. Fall 
plowing may be advisable in order to catch the 
water of the inactive season, and also to expose 
hard soils to weathering, and it may hasten the 
work of spring. But clay lands with little humus 
in them may puddle or cement if fall -plowed, and 
if harrowed and fitted in the fall ; and in the 
south all rolling lands are exposed to serious gully- 
ing by fall plowing. As a general thing, it is not 
advisable to plow fruit plantations in the fall, how- 
ever, not only because it may too greatly expose the 
roots to the weather, but because it prevents the 
ameliorating of such lands by the use of some in- 
cidental or catch crop which may be sown after the 



I 



Tools with which to Save Moisture. 145 

summer tilling is done. The winter covering of 
plants is quite as efficient in holding the precipi- 
tated water as fall plowing is, and the other ad- 
vanta-ges of it are invaluable (as explained in Chap- 
ter IV.). 

Any body or substance which is interposed be- 
tween the air and the moist soil will prevent the 
evaporation of the moisture. The ground is moist 
underneath a board. So is it underneath a layer 
of sawdust or of ashes ; and so is it underneath 
a layer of two or three inches of dry earth. It 
is expensive and difficult to haul this dry earth 
onto the land, and, moreover, it soon becomes hard 
and dense, and is no longer a mulch. It is better 
to make the mulch on the spot by shallow cultiva- 
tion, and to repair the mulch as soon as it be- 
comes hard and crusted. The orchardist will, there- 
fore, till as often as the land needs it, however 
frequent that may be ; but as a general statement 
it may be said that fruit -lands ought to be tilled 
every ten days and after every rain. 

USE OF THE VARIOUS TOOLS IN RELATION TO 
CONSERVATION OF MOISTURE.* 

Flowing to save moisture. — The first step in the 
conservation of moisture must be the preparation of 
the land so that the rain will sink down, and not 
be carried off by surface drainage. In many sec- 

* Adapted from L. A. Clinton, Bull. 120, Cornell Exp. Sta. For a fuller 
discussion of the subject, consult Roberts' "The Fertility of the Land." 

E 



146 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

tions of the country, especially in the southern 
states, the great bane to agriculture is the surface 
washing of the soil. Owing to shallow plowing 
and shallow cultivation, the water is unable to set- 
tle into the hard soil with sufficient rapidity, and 
is carried along the surface, producing those gullies 
which are there so destructive to farm lands. 

The improvements in the plow have done much 
towards remedying these defects, but there is still 
much ignorance as to the proper use of this imple- 
ment. As an implement to be used in the prepa- 
ration of the soil for the reception of moisture, it 
stands pre-eminent. Good plowing does not con- 
sist — as ordinarily supposed — in merely inverting a 
portion of the earth, but in pulverizing and fining 
it and burying the sod or refuse which may be 
on the surface. The amount of water which a 
soil is capable of holding depends directly upon 
the fineness of its particles. Then that plow which 
will break and pulverize the soil most thoroughly 
is the one best adapted to fit the soil for holding 
moisture. This point is well illustrated by King in 

Note.— Figs. 13 and 14 (pages 147 and 148) are designed to illustrate some 
of the leading types of tools which are used for tilling fruit-lands. It is not 
the purpose to recommend these particular tools over any others, or, in fact, to 
recommend them at all ; but simply to show the reader the range of forms 
which are in common use. 

Fig. 13. No. 1, An ideal plow (from Roberts' "The Fertility of the Land"); 
2, Syracuse vineyard and garden plow; 3, Syracuse swivel plow; 4, Mapes sub- 
soil plow ; 5, Deere subsoil plow ; 6, 8, Spike-tooth cultivators ; 7, Gang-plow: 
9, Spring-tooth cultivator, with side guards ; 10, Pearce's orchard gang- 
plow ; 11, Sherwood harness. 

Fig. 14. No. 1, Disc harrow ; 2, Spike-tooth harrow ; 3, Acme harrow ; 4, 
Spring-tooth harrow, with side frames ; 5, Sulky cultivator ; 6, Spring-tooth 
harrow; 7, Springfield sprape-hoe •, 8, Morgan grape-hoe (handle a is a rudder) . 




Fie. 13, Various too., adapted ,„ tming of ,n,it plantation.. 

Uor titles see uote, page 146.) 




Fig. 14. Tools adapted to surface tilling of fruit-lands. 
(For titles see note, page 146.) 



Saving Soil Moisture. 149 

"The Soil." He says: "Since each independent soil 
grain of a moist soil is more or less completely 
surrounded by a film of water, it is evident that, 
other conditions being present, the largest aggre- 
gate surface area may retain the most water per 
cubic foot. Now, a cubic foot of marbles one 
inch in diameter possesses an aggregate surface of 
27.7 square feet, while if the marbles were reduced 
in diameter to one -thousandth of an inch, then the 
total area per cubic foot is increased to 37,700 
square feet." From this it is evident that the 
total amount of water capable of being absorbed 
by a soil which is cloddy and lumpy is very slight 
in comparison with what it would be were it in a 
finely divided state ; and not only is its absorbing 
power less, but its power of holding moisture is 
also greatly reduced. 

A large amount of water is lost during the 
winter and spring months, owing to the surface 
drainage of melting snows and heavy rainfalls. 
To prevent this loss, fall plowing may be prac- 
ticed, and when the subsoil is very hard and com- 
pact, the use of the subsoil plow may prove most 
beneficial. Should the ground break up in clods, 
then it may be allowed to remain during the 
winter without harrowing, to more thoroughly sub- 
ject it to the beneficial action of the elements. 
But if the soil is in good mechanical condition, 
and in fruit -land, plants should be growing on it 
during the winter. 

Harrowing to save moisture. — The harrow, besides 



150 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

pulverizing and fining the soil for the seed-bed, is 
most efficient in furnishing an earth -mulch. The 
spring -tooth harrow is in reality a cultivator, and 
its action is similar to that of the cultivator. 
When used as an instrument to conserve moisture, 
the teeth should penetrate to the depth of about 
three inches, and to produce the best effect the 
ridges left by it should be leveled off by a smoother, 
which can now be purchased as an attachment to 
the harrow. The tillage of orchards by the harrow 
is now practiced extensively, and nothing short of 
irrigation will so nearly meet the demands of trees 
for moisture, particularly upon the heavier soils. 

The Acme harrow is a most excellent implement 
on soils which are comparatively free from stones 
and rubbish. The plow -like action of its blades 
serves to pulverize the soil, to spread the mulch 
evenly, and it leaves a most excellent seed-bed. 

The cutaway or disc harrows may be either bene- 
ficial or of absolute injury. If the discs are so set 
that they cover but a portion of the surface with 
the mulch, they leave a ridge exposed to the action 
of the wind and sun, and the rate of evaporation 
is greatly increased. The discs should be set at 
such an angle that the whole surface shall be 
stirred or covered. Their chief value lies in their 
cutting and pulverizing action on clay soils, but as 
conservers of moisture they are inferior to the Acme 
or the spring -tooth. Soils which need the disc 
harrow to pulverize them should generally be gone 
over again with some shallower tool. 



Cultivating to Save Moisture 151 

The mellower the soil, the lighter should be the 
work done by the harrow. On most heavy orchard 
soils, it will be found necessary to use the heavy 
tools, like the spring -tooth and disc harrows, in the 
spring, but if the land is properly handled it should 
be in such condition as to allow the use of a 
spike -tooth or smoothing harrow during summer. 
This light summer harrowing should be sufficient to 
keep down the weed^, and it preserves the soil- 
mulch in most excellent condition. With such a 
tool and on land in good tilth, a man can harrow 
ten or more acres a day. 

Cultivators and conservation of moisture. — The ac- 
tion of cultivators is not materially different from 
that of the spring -tooth harrow. The size of the 
teeth should be regulated by the work to be per- 
formed, an implement with many small teeth being 
preferable to one with a few large teeth, when the ob- 
ject is to conserve moisture. It must be borne in 
mind that in a dry time the less surface exposed the 
less will be the evaporation. If a large-toothed im- 
plement is used to destroy grass and weeds, then it 
should be followed by a smoother to reduce the ridges 
and prevent loss of moisture. Ridge culture is only 
allowable when the object is to relieve the soil of 
moisture on bottom lands where the water comes 
very near the surface, or for some special crops, 
where a high degree of warmth is required early in 
the season. In these cases, it may be necessary to 
throw up ridges to produce the proper degree of 
warmth for germination, but even then the ridges 



152 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

should be slight. Nothing could be better calculated 
to dry out a potato field or a corn field than throw- 
ing the ground up in high ridges, leaving a large 
surface exposed to the action of sun and wind. 
In fruit plantations which are in a proper state of 
cultivation, a small -toothed or even spike -toothed 
cultivator will be found sufficient to maintain the 
surface mulch. 

The roller, in its relation to soil moisture, is an 
implement whose value depends largely upon local 
conditions. There is no tool which requires more 
judgment as to its proper use. On light, loose, 
sandy or gravelly soils, where every effort must be 
made to solidify and pack the particles closely to- 
gether, the roller must be used repeatedly. The 
difficulty with such soils is that the spaces between 
the grains are so large that the water is permitted 
to pass through freely, and is lost by percolation. 
The capillary openings are so large that there is 
very feeble rise of the water to take the place of 
that used by plants and lost by evaporation. The 
roller lessens the size of these pores in solidifying 
the soil, and the capillary force is then strong 
enough to draw the water to the surface. If, now, 
the soil is left in this condition, it has been put 
in the best possible form for parting with its 
moisture into the atmosphere, and it will take ad- 
vantage of the opportunity unless prevented by 
establishing a surface mulch. In seeding land in a 
dry time, the soil should be rolled in order to bring 
sufficient moisture to the seeds to insure germina- 



Rolling and Smoothing. 153 

tion. When circumstances will permit, the roller 
should be followed by a smoothing harrow, that the 
surface mulch may be restored and the moisture 
stopped before reaching the atmosphere. On clay 
lands the roller must be used with much caution. 
If used immediately after grain is sown and a heavy 
rain follows, there is danger of the soil becoming 
so compact on the surface that the tender shoots 
are unable to get through, and the most direct con- 
nection is established between the soil moisture and 
the air. A good method of treatment for clay is 
to roll before the seed is sown, then harrow and 




Fig. 15. A planker or float. 

make a good seed bed, and then drill in the grain. 
After the plants are well up the roller may be used 
again, which will bring the water to the surface, 
where the growing plants can make use of it before 
it passes off by evaporation. 

Various kinds of plankers or floats may be used 
in the place of the roller to smoothen and compact 
recently tilled lands. A good tool of this kind is 
shown in Fig. 15. "To make this cheap and easily- 
made adjunct to good cultivation, take two hard- 
wood planks, 2x8 inches and 7 feet long, and 



154 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

notch them as in the cut, boring a hole at the upper 
end to hitch to; the notches should be 8 inches apart 
and 2 inches deep ; now nail cross planks on the two 
notched bed pieces, using the same sized pieces, 2x8 
and 6 or 7 feet long ; let the cross planks project 1 
foot at each end over the bed pieces. If more weight 
is needed to fine the clay lumps, the driver can ride 
the float, or weights can be placed on it. I go over 
with this float when seeding to grass, and also in 
fitting strawberry ground. I prefer it to a roller, as 
it leaves the surface smooth and fine."* 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TILLING OF FRUIT -LANDS. 

Lands which enjoy perfect natural drainage are 
particularly desirable for orchards, because they are 
not only warm and give up their fertility easily, 
but because they also allow of very early cultivation, 
which is an important requisite in the management 
of orchards. If this perfect natural drainage does 
not exist, tile- drainage should be employed until the 
soil is brought into the best possible condition. It 
should be said that many hard and wet soils make 
excellent pear and plum lands when thoroughly tile- 
drained. It is a common opinion that only flat lands 
need draining, but one often finds rolling lands in 
which the subsoil is high and hard, and holds the 
water like a dish -pan. Judicious draining not 
only carries off the superfluous water, but it also 

*H. L. Barton, in Fruit; quoted in Market Garden, Apr., 1897. 



Subsoiling. 155 

loosens the subsoil and allows it to retain its mois- 
ture better in times of drought. An attempt should 
be made to bring the land in the various parts of 
the orchard into conditions as uniform as possible, 
so that the same tillage and treatment may be ap- 
plied to the entire area. All hard and "sour" spots 
should receive particular care in drainage and subju- 
gation, or they should be left outside the plantation. 

Lands which have hard and impervious subsoils 
should be plowed very deep before trees are put 
upon them ; and in some cases, as for dwarf pears, 
it may pay well to use the subsoil plow. It should 
be borne in mind, however, that the subsoil plow is 
not always a fundamental corrective of hard subsoils, 
for it does not remove the cause. The subsoil may 
gradually settle back into its old condition, and land 
cannot be completely subsoiled after it is planted to 
trees. In the case of strawberries, raspberries, and 
other short -rotation fruits, the subsoil plow may be 
used at frequent intervals; but in lands which are to 
be planted to orchards, the tile drain is a more per- 
fect ameliorator of the subsoil than the subsoil plow 
is. Yet even the one subsoiling may serve a use- 
ful purpose in sending the roots downwards at the 
start, and this advantage will be the greater when 
the superfluous water removes itself rapidly from the 
hard-pan. 

The soil in which orchards are set should always 
be in a thorough state of cultivation at the time the 
trees are planted; that is, whether in sod or in hoed 
crops, the land should be in good tilth or physical 



156 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

condition, fertile, and free from hard or "sour" places 
and pernicious weeds. There are exceptions to this 
rule in the case of certain rocky or steep lands upon 
which it is desired to set apples; but for all orchards 
which are planted directly for commercial results, 
this advice has few, if any, exceptions. It is gener- 
ally best to put the land into hoed crops the season 
before the trees are set, as potatoes or corn; although 
sod land, if well fitted and naturally in good heart, 
often gives excellent results when turned over and 
set at once to orchards. But most soils need the 
previous cultivation to bring them into a mellow and 
uniform condition. Many of the "bad places" in or- 
chards, where trees die out the first two or three 
years, could have been discovered and corrected if 
the land had been devoted to one or several hoed 
crops, for the owner would have observed that they 
were too wet or too lumpy, or had other serious de- 
fects. Lands look more uniform when in sod than 
when cultivated, and the farmer may be led to over- 
estimate their value for orchard purposes. It may 
also be said that the familiarity with a particular 
piece of land, which comes of frequent cultivation, 
enables the careful grower to judge accurately of its 
adaptability to particular fruits or even to special 
varieties. 

i The best tillage is that which begins early in the 
season, and which keeps the surface stirred until late 
summer or early fall, and the best implements are 
those which secure this result with the least amount 
of time and labor. For the first few years, it is gen- 



Plowing Orchards. 157 

erally advisable to turn the land rather deep with a 
plow at the first spring cultivation. For the subse- 
quent cultivation of the season, there are many styles 
of clod crushers, spring- tooth harrows, cut-aways and 
smoothing harrows, which adapt themselves readily to 
the cultivation of the particular soil in question. 
There is no single style of tool which is best for all 
soils or for all years. As a general statement, it may 
be said that for all heavy lands the fruit-grower 
needs four types of harrows, — the cut-away, or 
spading -harrow type for hard land, and the first 
spring work ; the spring -tooth type, the Acme or 
clod -crusher type, and the smoothing -harrow type. 
The last is to be used only to make and maintain the 
surface mulch after the land has been got in fine 
tilth. In all friable or loose soils, shallow cultivation 
is always preferable. When the land is once in good 
condition, but little effort and time are required to 
run through the orchard. Crust should never be al- 
lowed to form upon the surface, and weeds should be 
killed before they become firmly established. The 
entire surface of the orchard should be thoroughly 
stirred as often as once in ten days or two weeks 
whilst the tillage lasts. 

In general, level culture is best. This is secured 
by plowing one year to the trees and the following 
year away from them; one year north and south, and 
the next year east and west. It is somewhat difficult 
to plow away from large trees, however, and with the 
cultivators or harrows now in use, it is easy to work 
the soil away by subsequent cultivation, allowing the 



158 



Thf Prm('iplei< of Frifif-fjron'iuf/. 



furrow to be thrown towards the tree each spring, 
particularly if the land is in good tilth; but it is al- 
ways advisable, upon fairly level ground, to plow the 
orchard in opposite directions in alternate years. 
Land which is so wet that it needs to be thrown 
permanently into ridges for drainage 
is not often adapted to fruit. 

The difficulty of working close to 
the trees has had the effect of en- 
couraging too high pruning. There 
is a tendency to start tops too high 
rather than too low, thereby exposing 
great length of trunk to injuries of 
sun and wind, and elevating the top 
beyond the reach of pickers and of 
sprays. For most trees the ideal 
length of trunk is under five feet 
rather than above it, and implements 
now in the market allow of this 
lower training. Trees which have 
low tops, or which hang low with 
fruit, can be reached by separating 
the halves of any of the double 
16. Set-over harrows by means of a long dou- 
beam vineyard plow- blctrce, SO that the halvcs, whcu ad- 
justed, run from four to six feet 
from each other. A cut-away harrow rigged in 
this manner will work away the back -furrows from 
under the trees during the season. All cultivators or 
harrows with high handles, wheels or levers should 
be discarded if orchards are worked when the limbs 




Tillagf of the Young Orchard. 159 

bend low with fruit. An implement of the grape - 
hoe type may be used with advantage in some cases 
to loosen the earth about the trees. A single -horse 
plow, with a set-over beam (as in Fig. 16), is also 
most excellent for plowing close to trees and bushes. 
The objection to medium -low heads to trees arises 
from the use of the old-fashioned implements of till- 
age, and also from a misconception of what the 
plowing of an old orchard should be, for if the or- 
chard is properly cared for in its earlier years, heavy 
plowing will not be needed in its later life. 

This labor of working about trees is greatly facil- 
itated by the use of harnesses which have no metal 
projections. There should be no hames with elevated 
tops, and the turrets on the back -pads should be 
simply leather loops. The back -pad itself should be 
reduced to a single wide strap entirely devoid of 
wadding. Harnesses of the Sherwood type, with no 
traces, but drawing by a single chain between the 
horses, are excellent in orchards, as they require no 
whifSetrees, and they are likewise handy and efficient. 

The better the plowing and other tillage of the 
orchard in the first few years of its life, the easier 
and more efficient the subsequent plowing will be. If 
care is taken to keep the land friable and well -filled 
with humus, it may not be necessary to turn furrows 
at the spring plowing after four or five years. Per- 
sons commonly suppose that an orchard must be 
plowed the same as corn or potato ground is, by in- 
verting the land and running regular furrows ; but 
inasmuch as the object is simply to keep the land 



160 



The Principles of Fruit -growing. 




mellow on top, and not to get a crop 
into it, heavy plowing is not essen- 
tial. Very often some of the heavier 
harrows or light gang- plows may be 
used to tear up the ground in spring, 
if the land has been got into proper 
shape when the plantation was young. 
This is especially true in light lands 
upon which peaches are generally 
grown. If cover crops are to be 
plowed under, these remarks will not 
apply with equal force. In the first 
few years, however, it is essential to 
plow moderately deep in order to break 
up the soil and to send the roots down, 
as explained farther on. A world of 
trouble with the orchard will be saved 
if the suggestions in this paragraph 
are fully understood. 

Specific remarks. — 1. Begin to till 
when the orchard is planted, and till 
the entire surface. If trees are prop- 



Root -growth in Trees. 161 

erly set, and if cultivation is begun the first year, 
the roots will go deep enough to escape the plow. 
The roots of trees spread much farther than the tops. 
I will give some examples from trees of which we 
have carefully measured the tops and roots. Fig. 17 
shows a standard Howell pear tree set in 1889 and 
photographed in 1895. It grows on a hard clay knoll. 
The full spread of the top is seven feet. Two roots 
were laid bare, and they ran off in one direction to 
a distance of twenty-one feet. Assuming that they 
ran an equal distance in the other direction, the 
spread of roots was forty-two feet, or just six times 
that of the top. And yet it is commonly said that 
the spread of roots and tops is about equal! Now, 
these roots were long and whip -like. The soil was 
so poor that they were obliged to search far and 
wide for pasture. Compare Fig. 18. This is a Fall 
Orange apple, also set in 1889, in rich, well tilled soil. 
Here the roots are in good pasture, and they remain 
at home; yet their spread is twice that of the top. 
The top of this tree had a diameter of eight feet, 
and we followed the roots eight feet upon the side in 
which we dug. These object lessons enforce the im- 
portance of tilling all the land between trees. 

But these figures teach another lesson. Even 
at their highest point, the roots of Fig. 17 are 
eight inches below the surface. They escape the 
plow. A like remark applies to Fig. 18. Now 
look at Fig. 19. This tree is the same age as 
the others, but has always stood in sod. The 
roots ran ten feet in one direction and the total 



162 



The Principles of Fruit-growing, 



spread of the top was six feet ; but the roots 
just underneath the surface. This land could 
be plowed without great injury to the tree, 
us consider the relation 
of this tree to moisture: 
the roots are in the dri- 
est part of the soil ; the 
grass is pumping out the 
water and locking it up 
in its own tissues and 
sending it into the at- 
mosphere with great ra- 
pidity ; the soil is baked, 
and pulls up the water 
by capillary attraction and 
discharges it into the air ; 
there is no tillage to stop 
this waste by spreading 
a mulch of loose and dry 
soil over the earth. If 



lie 
not 
Let 




Fig. 18. Roots of a young apple tree in rich tilled land. 



one were to sink a well under this tree and were 
to erect a windmill and pump, he could not so 
completely deprive the tree of moisture! And the 



Tillage in Young Orchards. 



163 



less moisture, the less food! And yet this is a com- 
mon method of treating fruit-trees! 

In young orchards, then, 
it is commonly best to plow 
rather deep — say six to eight 
inches — in order to send the 
roots down. Of course, the 
plow should not be run deep 
close to the trunk of the 
tree. The careful plowman 
will turn out his plow when 
he comes within a couple 
of feet of the tree. This 
deep plowing for a few 
years will ameliorate the 
land, establish the root -habit 
of the tree, and obviate 
the necessit}' of laborious 
plowing in after years. 

2. Tillage should be be- 
gun early in the season, 
in orchards. Trees com- 
plete most of their growth 
by the first of July. Early 
tillage saves the moisture 



j^^A-^.^/^tj^A\\ni/L>^^^^^^^^ 




Fig. 19. Roots of a young apple tree in sod land. 



164 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

which has accumulated during the winter and spring; 
it is capable of putting the soil in fine mechanical 
condition, and this condition is as important as fer- 
tility ; it warms up the soil and sets the plants 
quickly to work ; it turns under the herbage when 
that herbage is soft and moist and when there is 
moisture in the soil, so that the herbage soon breaks 
down and decays. All catch crops on the orchard 
should be plowed under just as soon as the ground 
is dry enough in the spring, for these crops soon 
pump the water from the soil and cause it to bake 
and cement together, and the longer they remain the 
more difficult it is to cause them to rot when turned 
under. Hard and woody herbage, plowed under late 
in the season, maj^ remain as a foreign body in 
the soil all summer, breaking the connection be- 
tween the upper and the lower soil, and thereby 
preventing the upward movement of the water and 
causing the top soil to completely dry out. The 
chief value of crimson clover, rye, or other catch 
crop in the orchard lies in its fall growth and 
its protection of the soil in winter, not in its 
growth in spring. 

Few people are aware that the season of growth 
in most woody plants extends scarcely to midsum- 
mer. It is worthy of note that most, if not all. 
native trees and shrubs cease growing very early in 
the season. This is no doubt one reason why they 
are able to endure the winter. Plants which cease 
growing early, and which mature their wood well, 
are often said to be determinate in their growth, 



Early Growth of Trees. 165 

while those of opposite habit are said to be inde- 
terminate. It is, of course, apparent that plants of 
indeterminate growth are not hardy, as a rule. A 
series of careful measurements of growth was made 
upon various trees and shrubs at Lansing, Michigan, 
in 1886, and some of the records are presented be- 
low.* The last date in each case designates the ter- 
mination of growth for the year. It will be 
observed that very few of the plants grew until 
July. This fact is illustration and proof that in 
our rigorous climate cultivation should stop early, 
and that it should be vigorous at the opening of 
the season . 



RECORDS OF GROWTH, t 

Acer dasycarpum — May 12th, 1 in.; 16th, 2 in.; 25th, 4 in.; 
June 6th, 7 in.; 13th, 9 in.; 20th, 10 in.: 29th, 12 in. 

*Acer Pennsylvanicum — May 12th, 2 in.; 18th, 4 in.; 20th, 
5 in. ; 26th, 7 in. 

Acer platanoides—Maj 12th, 3 in.; 16th, 4 in.; 20th, 5 in. 

Acer Pseudo-Platanus — May 14th, 6 in.; 18th, 8 in.; 16th, 12 
in.; 30th, 13 in.; June 6th, 20 in.; 13th, 23 in ; 20th, 24 in. 

Acer rubrum—Msiy 26th, 5 in.; 30th, 6 in.; June 6th, 9 in.; 
13th, 10 in. 



♦Bailey, Bull. 31, Mich. Agr. College, 73. 

t In making the measurements recorded above, one average shoot was 
selected on each plant, and measured from time to time during the growing 
season. The drought may have checked growth to some degree, although it did 
not become severe tintil the end of June. Most of the plants stood upon the 
eampus, with no cultivation. A few were younger, and stood in the rows of a 
closely planted arboretum, where they received occasional cultivation, or 
in a newly-planted group, where the soil was frequently hoed; these plants 
are designated by asterisks, 



166 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Acer spicatum — May 18th, 1 in. ; 20th, 2 in. ; 30th, 3 in. ; 
June 6th, 5 in.; 13th, 6 in.; 29th, 10 in.; July 5th, 11 in., 
11th, 12 in. 

uEsculus glabra— May 12th, 5 in. ; 14th, 10 in. ; 18th, 11 in. ; 
20th, 12 in.; 26th, 13 in.; 30th, 14 in. 

JEsculus Hippocastanum — May 5th, 2 in.; 12th, 5 in.; 14th, 7 
in.; 20th, 10 in.; 25th, 13 in.; 30th, 13 in. 

Msculus parviflora — May 5th, 2 in.; 25th, 6 in. ; June 6th, 8 
in. ; 10th, 9 in. ; 16th, 10 in. ; 29th, 12 in. 

Alnus glutinosa — May 14th, y^\n.', 18th, 1 in.; 30th, 2 in.; 
June 6th, 3 in. ; 20th, 4 in. 

*Alnus maritima — May 20th, 1 in. ; 26th, 2 in. ; June 1st, 3 in. 

Alnus serrulata — May 18th, 4 in., 25th, 8 in.; 30th, 12 in.; 
June 6th, 13 in.; 13th, 14 in.; 20th, 16 in. 

Amelanchier Canadensis — May 12th, 1 in. ; 14th, 2 in. ; 18th, 

3 in. ; 20th, 4 in. ; 26th, 7 in. ; 30th, 8 in. 

Amorpha fruticosa — May 12th, 1 in.; 14th, 2 in.; 18th, 4 in.; 
20th, 6 in.; 26th, 10 in.; 30th, 11 in.; June 6th, 12 in. 

Ampelopsis quinquefolia—M.aj 26th, 14 in. ; 30th, 16 in. ; June 
6th, 24 in.; 13th, 30 in.; 20th, 36 in.; 29th, 38 in. 

Aralia spinosa— May 26th, 4 in. ; 30th, 5 in. ; June 13th, 5X 
in. ; 20th, 6 in. 

Berberis vulgaris— M&j 26th, 8 in.; June 1st, 12 in.; 6th, 14 
in.; 13th, 17 in ; 20th, 18 in.; 29th, 20 in. 

Betula alba, var.— May 12th, 1 in.; 20th, 2 in.; 25th, 4 in.; 
30th, 5 in.; June 6th, 7 in.; 10th, 8 in.; 19th, 10 in. 

^Betula lenta—May 26th, 1 in.; June 1st, 2 in.; 13th, 6 in.; 
20th, 10 in. 

Betula lutea—May 25th, 1 in.; 30th, 2 in.; June 6th, 3 in.; 
13th, 4 in.; 29th, 5 in. 

Betula papyrifera— May 18th, 1 in.; 20th, 2 in.; 26th, 3 in.; 
June Ist, 3X in-'. 6th, 4 in.; 20th, 5 in. 

* Betula alba Y&T. populifolia— May ISth, 1 in.; 20th. IX in-'. 
26th, 3 in.; June 1st, 4 in.; 6th, 6 in.; 13th, 7 in.; 19th, 12 in.; 
29th, 14 in. 

Carpinus Caroliniana— May 25th, 1 in.; 30th, 2 in.; June 6th, 

4 in.; 13th, 5 in.; 20th, 6 in. 



Early growth of Trees. 167 

Carya alba—^&j 20th, 3 in.; 30th, 8 in.; June 6th, 9 in.; 
13th, 9X in. 

Carya amara — May 25th, 3 in.; 30th, 3X in-'» June 3rd, 4 in,; 
13th, 4X in. 

*Carya sulcata— Mslj 18th, 6 in.; 20th, 8 in.; 26th, 12 in.; 
Juhe 1st, 14 in. 

*Castanea pumila— May 18th, 3 in.; 20th, 4 in.; June 19th, 
12 in. 

Castanea vesca — May 16, 1 in.; 26tn, 2 in.; June 1st, 2X in-l 
13th, 3 in. 

*Catalpa Kcempferi— May 16th, 5 in.; 18th, 6 in.; 26th, 12 in.; 
30th, 14 in.; June 6th, 16 in.; 13th, 20 in.; 20th, 24 in.; 29th, 
28 in. 

Celtis occidentalis — May 18th, 3 in.; June 13th, 10 in. 
*Cercis Canadensis— May 18th, 2 in., June 29th, 15 in. 
Cladrastis tinctoria— May 9th, 1 in.; June 20th, 18 in. 
Cornus florida— May 25th, 2 in.; 30th, 2X in-; June 6th, 3 
in.; 13th, 4 in.; 20th, 5 in.; 29th, 6 in. 

*Cornus Sibirica — May 16th, 1 in.; June 29th, 12 in. 
CratcBQus Crus-galli— May 9th, 1 in.; June 13th, 7 in. 
Cratcegus Oxyacantha — May 12th, 3 in.; June 29th, 22 in. 
*Euonymus atropurpureus — May 18th, 6 in.; June 19th, 13 in. 

Fagus ferruginea — May 18th, 2 in.; 26th, 5 in.; 30th, 8 in. 
*Fraxinus pubescens — May 14th, 2 in.; 18th, 4 in.; 20th, 6 in.; 
26th, 8 in. 

Gleditschia triacanthos — June 1st, 2 in.; 20th, 12 in. 
Liriodendron Tulipifera — May 26th, 1 in.; 30th, 2 in.; June 
6th, 3 in.; 29th, 5 in.; July 5th, 6 in. 

*Maclura aurantiaca — May 18th, 1 in.; July 10th, 37 in. 
Magnolia acuminata — May 20th, 1 in.; June 29th, 6 in. 
Philadelphus coronarius — May 12th, 3 in.: June 19th, 19 in. 
Platanus occidentalis — May 26th, 1 in.; July 5th, 9 in. 
*Platanus orientalis — May 18th, 3 in. ; 20th, 4 in. ; 26th, 8 in. ; 
June 1st, 12 in. ; 6th, 16 in. ; 13th, 24 in. ; 29th, 40 in. ; July 
11th, 44 in.; 25th, 52 in.; Aug. 3d, 56 in., still growing. 

*Populus alba var. Bolleana — M&j 12th, 2 in.; August 3rd, 
32 in. 



168 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Populus grandidentata var. pendula — May 12th, 2% in. ; June 
29th, 17 in. 

Populus monilifera — May 16th, 2 in.; June 19th, 6 in. 

Prunus nana — May 16th, 3 in.; 26th, 5 in.; June 1st, 7 in. 

Prunus Pissa7-dii—M.Siy 8th, 5 in. ; June 13th 10 in. 

Prunus serotina — May 12th, 7 in. ; 30th, 14 in. 

Prunus Virginiana — May 12th, 3 in.; 26th, 6 in. 

Pyrus Aiicuparia — May 3d, % in.; June 6th, 12 in. 
*Pyrus Malus— May 9th, 2 in. ; 26th, 8 in. 

Quercus alba— May 12th, 2 in.; 18th, 6 in.; 26th, 13 in. 
*Quercus hicolor — May 9th, 2 in.; July 5th, 12 in. 

Quercus coccinea var. tinctoria — May 12th, 1 in. ; June 13th, 
7 in. 

*Quercus ilicifolia— May 14th, 3 in.; June 6th, 13 in. 
*Quercus imhricaria — May 12th, 2 in.; June 6th, 20 in. 

Quercus macrocarpa — May 16th, 4 in.; 20th, 6 in.; 25th, 
12 in.; 30th, 13 in.; June 6th, 14 in. 

Quercus nigra — May 12th, 5 in.; June 6th, 14 in. 

Bibes floridum — May 12th, 2 in. ; June 6th, 12 in. 

Bohinia hispida— May 18th, 2 in.; June 19th, 12 in. 

Bobinia Pseudacacia — May 12th, 1 in.; 18th, 2 in.; 26th, 
3 in.; 30th, 4 in.: June 6th, 5 in.; 13th 6 ,in. ; 20th, 7 in.; 
29th, 9 in.; July Cth, 10 in. 

*SaUx Babylonica— May 9th, % in.; 12th, 2 in.; 16th, 3 in.; 
20th, 4 in.; 26th, 6 in.; June 1st, 12 in.; 13th, 16 in.; July 
11th, 27 in.; 19th, 34 in.; 25th, 40 in.; Aug. 3d, 42 in. 

Syringa vulgaris— May 3d, 4 in.: 9th, 8 in.; 12th, 12 in.; 
18th, 13 in.; 26th, 14 in. 

Tilia Americana— May 14th, 2 in.; 18th, 3 in.; 20th, 5 in.; 
26th, 11 in.; June 1, 12 in.; 6th, 13 in. 

Fitis riparia — May 14th, 1 in. ; 30th, 15 in. 

3. Tillage should generally be stopped in late sum- 
mer or very early fall. The tree has completed its 
growth. It must now ripen and prepare for winter. 
It can spare some of the moisture which comes with 



Mistakes in Orchard Culture. 169 

the fall rains. We may, therefore, sow some catch 
or cover crop. (See Chapter IV.) 

4. Till in such manner that the land shall be 
in uniformly fine tilth. Every good farmer knows that 
the value of his crop depends more upon the tilth 
of the soil than upon the mere richness of it. Fer- 
tility is largely locked up in poorly tilled lands. 
Orchards which are plowed late in spring are usu- 
ally in bad condition all the season, especially if the 
soil is clay. Fall plowing upon stiff and bare lands 
is apt to result in the puddling of the soil by the 
rain and snow, as already explained; if there is sod 
on the land, this injury is less likely to follow. 
In general, it is best to let orchard lands pass the 
winter under a catch crop. 

5. Remember that tillage may be overdone. Trees 
may be made to grow too much wood, and there- 
fore too little fruit, and they may be sent into the 
winter in soft and unripened condition. If land is 
in good tilth, as it is when in best condition for 
the growing of potatoes or melons, tillage beyond 
that needed to conserve the moisture is useless ; and 
even this conservation -tillage may well stop in late 
summer in very many cases, as already indicated 
It is a common practice to severely head -in trees 
which are making a too vigorous growth, but this 
practice usually aggravates the difficulty rather than 
corrects it. The fundamental treatment for such 
trees is to check the growth by some means, as by 
lessening the tillage or by withholding stimulating 
fertilizers. 



170 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

CROPPING THE ORCHARD. 

It will now be asked what crops may be grown 
in the orchard. Grain and hay, never! Any hoed 
crop may be used for the first few years ; but it 
must be remembered that every crop competes with 
the trees for food and moisture, and whatever may 
befall the crop, the trees should not be allowed to 
suffer. An open space should be left about the tree, 
free of crops, at least several feet in extent. As 
a general statement, it may be said that a space 
three feet wide should be left upon all sides of the 
tree the first year, and this area should be enlarged 
a foot or two each year ; and this space should con- 
tinue to enlarge until the trees occupy the entire sur- 
face. Corn and some other luxuriant plants appro- 
priate moisture more quickly than the tree can. 
In general, some low -growing crop which demands 
good tillage and comes off the land early is best. 
The notion that young trees should be shaded by a 
crop is probably erroneous for most regions. In 
orchards set less than twenty feet apart, the land 
should rarely be cropped after the third year ; but 
apple orchards, if well cared for, may be cropped 
lightly for seven or eight years. In no case should 
the grower expect to secure as much crop upon 
orchard land as upon other areas ; and the drier 
the land, the less should it be cropped. When the 
orchard comes to bearing age, give it the entire land. 
Thereafter, the most profitable secondary crop to raise 
is cultivators. 



Crops for Fruit Plantations. 171 

In general, it may be said that only those crops 
are allowable in a fruit plantation which demand 
such treatment as to improve the land for the fruit 
plants. The growing of light crops is a means of 
keeping the land stirred when it might otherwise be 
neglected ; and if the grower is careful to see that 
the physical condition of the land is improved, and 
adds enough plant -food to supply the loss, the light 
cropping of orchards for the first few years may be 
a decided benefit. At all events, cultivated crops 
are better than sod. The danger is that the fruit- 
grower will continue the cropping too long, and 
expect too much from it. In an orchard, the crops 
ought to pay for taking care of the land until the 
trees come into bearing. Strawberries and the bush 
fruits may be advantageously set in alternate rows 
with beans or potatoes, and the same tillage is re- 
quired for each crop. 

Only annual crops should be grown in fruit plan- 
tations. The growing of nursery stock in orchards 
— a frequent practice in parts of the north — should 
be discouraged.* This crop makes essentially the 
same demands upon the land as the orchard itself, 
and it does not allow of those variations in culti- 
vation and management which may be essential to 
the varying seasons. It may be true that enough 
fertilizer can be placed upon the land to replace the 
loss of plant -food, but it is rarely done ; and, more 
than this, the nursery stock drinks up the moisture 

♦The double-planting of fruit lands— the mixing of different kinds of fruits 
—is discussed in Chapter V. 



172 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

which should be used b}^ the orchard. Nursery 
stock is known to be particularly hard upon land, 
so much so that nurserymen seldom grow two crops 
of fruit-tree stocks in succession upon the same 
area; but this injury to the land is an impairment 
of physical condition rather than exhaustion of plant- 
food. (See Chapter IV.) 

Sod may sometimes be allowed in an orchard if it 
is closel}^ pastured, but hay should never be cut. Sod 
lands are not only drier than cultivated ground, but 
they are favorite breeding places of insects. Borers 
are particularly bad in grass land. No stone fruits 
should ever be allowed to stand in sod, and the same 
may be said of dwarf pears. Apples and standard 
pears may now and then be seeded with safety, but 
it is certainly true that, in general, fruit decreases in 
proportion as sod increases. Very thrifty young 
apple and pear orchards may sometimes be thrown 
into bearing by seeding them down for a time, but 
the sod should be broken up before the trees become 
checked in vigor. The whole question as to whether 
sod is hurtful or beneficial to an orchard is a local 
one. The grower must determine it for himself. If 
the orchard is in sod and is not doing well, the best 
advice in general is to plow and till it. Certainly it 
is better to make tillage the rule and sod the excep- 
tion, than to start out with the intention of growing 
an orchard in grass and cultivating it only when 
forced to do so. It is better to pasture an orchard 
than to allow the grass to grow at will, but close 
pasturing can by no means take the place of tillage. 



Remedy for Unprofitable Orchards. 173 

If one wants to raise hay or grain, it is cheapest to 
grow it where there are no trees to bother. If he 
wants to grow apples or grapes, he had better choose 
some other place than a meadow or grain field. The 
use of clover and other temporary cover crops as a 
means of fertilizing the land is another matter, and 
is discussed in the next chapter. 

Most apple orchards are in sod, and growers are 
always asking if they shall be plowed up. If the 
growers of apples are satisfied with the crops, let the 
orchards alone ; but if it is thought that better crops 
are desirable, do not hesitate to make an effort to 
obtain them. It is surprising that the disastrous fail- 
ures of recent years have not awakened farmers to 
the necessity of really doing something for their 
orchards. Now and then an enterprising man makes 
an energetic attempt and is rewarded, but the greater 
number continue to exercise the most thoroughgoing 
neglect and to bewail the failure of the crop. Yes, 
plow the old apple orchard ; then fertilize and spray 
it. Or, if the roots are too near the surface to allow 
of plowing, harrow it thoroughly when the turf is 
soft in spring, and continue to work it during the 
season. If this is not feasible, then pasture it closely 
with sheep or hogs, feeding the stock at the same 
time. If this cannot be done, and the orchard is 
unprofitable, cut it down. 

When orchards begin to bear well, the crops 
should be discontinued. Young orchards may some- 
times be summer -fallowed with the very best results 
if the land is hard and intractable. This fallowing 



174 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

is clean cultivation. This is often the quickest and 
cheapest way of bringing such lands into fit condi- 
tion for the growing of the fruit, and the longer 
the process is delayed after the plants are set, the 
more difficult and the less efficient the labor will 
be. This summer -fallow should be begun very early 
in the season and continued until midsummer, at 
which time some cover crop may be sown. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE FERTILIZING OF FRUIT LANDS, 

Any land which is fit for the growing of crops 
will maintain a fruit plantation throughout its exist- 
ence without the addition of plant -food, and enable 
the trees to produce at the same time a normal quan- 
tity and quality of fruit. But the profit in fruit- 
growing lies in securing the extra normal or superior 
quantity and quality, and this result demands fertiliz- 
ing of the land and every other good care. How 
much plant -food the farmer should add to his land 
depends upon the amount of increase or profit which 
he secures. It is a matter of business, an item of 
profit and loss. If the fruit-grower applies five tons 
of fertilizer to every acre and secures a profit on the 
investment, the quantity is none too large ; but in 
many instances it is a loss of the material to add 
anything. The successful merchant is the one who is 
dissatisfied with a normal and common trade, but he 
forces the demand by attracting and interesting his 
customers beyond the point of their actual needs. 

There are many causes which contribute to the 
unsatisfactory results of applying fertilizers, but the 
commonest one is lack of proper tillage and prepara- 
tion of the land. Poorly -tilled land, as we have 

(175) 



176 The Principle a of Fruit-growing. 

seen, not only refuses to yield up its own stores of 
wealth, but it will delay and even preclude the good 
results from plant -foods which may be added to it. 
The first thing to do, then, is to make it possible 
for the plant to grow. Make the physical and en- 
vironmental conditions right, and the addition of 
plant -food will be felt and appreciated. The plant 
must be made comfortable before it will thrive. A 
cow will not relish even the fanciest ration if she 
shivers with cold. 

The grower must set himself in line with nat- 
ural methods. He must see that the soil has a 
good supply of humus or decaying organic matter 
(got from crops turned under, dressings of stable 
manure, muck, and the like), and that it generally 
has some cover upon it. Earl}^ in the season, this 
cover is the surface mulch of cultivated soil, and 
later it is the cover crop of rye or crimson clover, 
or something of the kind. 

Nature is a kindlj^ and solicitous mother. She 
knows that bare land becomes unproductive land. 
Its elements must be unlocked and worked over 
and digested by the roots of plants. The surface 
must be covered to catch the rains and to hold 
the snows, to retain the moisture, and to prevent 
the baking and cementing of the soil. The plant 
tissues add fiber and richness to the land, and 
make it amenable to all the revivifying influences 
of sun and rain and air and warmth. The plant 
is CO -partner with the weather in the building of 
the prim^ll soils. The lichen spreads its thin sub- 



Evolution of Soils. 177 

stance over the rock, sending its fibers into the 
crevices and filling the chinks, as they enlarge, with 
the decay of its own structure ; and finally the 
rock is fit for the moss or fern or creeping vine, each 
newcomer leaving its impress by which some later 
newcomer may profit. Finally the rock is disinte- 
grated and comminuted, and is ready to be still 
further elaborated by corn and ragweed. Nature 
intends to leave no vacant or bare surfaces. She 
providently covers the railway embankment with 
quack -grass or willows, and she scatters daisies in 
the old meadows where the land has grown sick 
and tired of grass. If one pulls up a weed, he 
must quickly fill the hole with some other plant, or 
nature will tuck another weed into it. Man is yet 
too ignorant or too negligent to care for the land, 
and nature must still stand at his back and sup- 
plement the work which he so shabbily performs. 
She knows no plants as weeds. They are all 
equallj^ useful to her. It is only when we come to 
covet some plant that all those which attempt to 
crowd it out become weeds to us. If, therefore, we 
are competent to make a choice of plants in the first 
place, we should also be able to maintain the 
choice against intruders. It is only a question of 
which plants we desire to cultivate. 

We must keep the land at work, for it grows 
richer and better for the exercise. A good crop on 
the land, aided by good tillage, will keep down all 
weeds. The weeds do not "run out" the sod, but 
the sod has grown weak through some fault of 

M 



178 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

our own, and thus the dandelions and plantains find 
a chance to live. So the best treatment for a 
weedy lawn is more grass. Loosen up the poor 
places with an iron garden rake, scatter a little 
fertilizer, and then sow heavily of grass seed. Do 
not plow up the lawn, for then you undo all that 
has been accomplished ; you kill all the grass and 
leave all the ground open for a free fight with 
every ambitious weed in the neighborhood. If the 
farmer occupies only half the surface of his field 
with oats, the other half is bound to be occupied 
with mustard or wild carrot or pigweed ; but if his 
land is all taken with oats, few other plants can 
thrive. So, a weedy farm is a poorly farmed farm. 
But if it does get foul and weedy, then what ? 
Then use a short, quick, sharp rotation. Keep the 
ground moving or keep it covered. No Russian 
thistle or live -for -ever or jimson-weed can ever keep 
pace with a lively and resourceful farmer. 

THE LESSON OF NURSERY LANDS. 

The injurious effects of leaving soils bare, and 
of tilling at untimely seasons, are well illustrated 
in most nursery plantations. The best nursery 
lands are the "strong" lands, or those which con- 
tain a basis of clay, and these are the ones which 
soonest suffer under unwise treatment. The nur- 
sery land is kept under clean culture, and it is, 
therefore, deeply pulverized. There is practically no 
herbage on the soil to protect it during the winter. 



i 



Depletion of Nursery Lands. 179 

When the crop is removed, even the roots are 
taken out of the soil. For four or five years, the 
land receives practically no vegetation which can rot 
and pass into humus ; and then, the trees are dug 
in the fall, often when the soil is in unfit condition, 
and this fall digging amounts to a fall plowing. The 
soil, deeply broken and robbed of its humus, runs 
together and cements itself before the following sum- 
mer ; and it then requires three or four years of 
"rest" in clover or other herbage crop to bring it 
back into its rightful condition. This resting 
period allows nature — if man grants her the privi- 
lege — to replace the fiber in the soil, and to make it 
once more so open and warm and kindly that 
plants can find a congenial root -hold in it. 

The following synoptical sketch of the causes of 
the so-called wearing -out of nursery lands will 
serve to bring the question of productivity of lands 
into its proper relationships and perspectives : * 

a. The fertility of the soil. — There are two analytical means 
of determining the fertility of the land. One method deter- 
mines the chemical constitution, and the other the mechani- 
cal or physical condition. 

Chemistry determines the amount and kind of plant-food 
in the soil, but it cannot tell just how useful this food may 
be to the plant. This depends upon the physical condition 
of the land, or upon the relation of the soil to warmth, 
moisture, air and mechanical constitution. The plant is not 
simply a passive agent, taking in the food which is pre- 
sented to it, but it is actively engaged in searching for and 
appropriating food. 

* L. H. Bailey, before American Association of Nurserymen, at Qliicaeo, as 
reported in Garden and Forest, June 24, 1896. 



180 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

The actual fertility of the soil depends, therefore, upon 
the plant as well as upon the land. The better and more 
comfortable the plant, the more food it can appropriate from 
a given soil ; hence that soil is practically the richer. The 
chemist does not determine the physical conditions which 
make the plant comfortable and active. In other words, the 
amount of plant-food in the soil is only one of the ele- 
ments in the fertility of the land. 

In most instances as much depends upon the physical 
condition of the soil as upon its chemical constitution, and 
in many eases even more depends upon it. 

Soil is derived from two sources— rock and organic mat- 
ter. Each is essential to it. Without the rock matter it 
would lose body and staying qualities. Without the organic 
matter it would lose life, or "heart" and activity. 

Nature adds the organic matter to the soil by growing 
plants upon it and then incorporating their remains with it. 
Everywhere the process of soil -building is now going on. 
The longer the soil is in crops the richer it becomes, al- 
though the relative amount of mineral matter which it eon- 
tains may be decreasing at the same time. 

Nature makes the soil richer, tlien, both by lining and 
digesting the mineral matter and by ameliorating its physical 
condition through the incorporation of humus or organic 
matter. 

This fining process must ultimately cease, but the addi- 
tion of humus never ceases. The final and complete en- 
richment of the soil, therefore, must come largely as the 
result of the incorporation of humus with it. 

The chief value of this humus is not to directly afford 
plant -food, but to improve the conditions of temperature, 
moisture, aeration and the like. 

b. Man^s treatment of the land. — Man's chief desire is to 
use the organic products of the land. He consumes the 
plant product. As a consequence, cultivated soils soon tend 
*o become hard, dense, heavy and lifeless, and the more 
clay-like the land the more pronounced is the result. 



The Best Nursery Lands. 181 

The best and richest farm soils are those which are 
loamy — that is, those which are friable, soft and dark-colored. 
This loamy condition is brought about largely by the ad- 
dition of stable -manures and green crops. 

Every ordinary soil tends to lose its humus sooner than 
its mineral plant-food, and most so-called exhausted soils 
are injured in their physical condition rather than exhausted 
of their fertility. 

It follows, therefore, that the addition of mere plant- food 
cannot entirely restore the generality of worn-out lands. 
The physical condition must always receive first attention. 
The addition of concentrated fertilizers is not a fundamental 
corrective of poor lands in the vast majority of cases. It 
should be considered as a supplement to the treatment of the 
land by means of tillage and cropping. 

If man's reward from the cultivation of the land is so 
unlike nature's, it follows that one cannot copy the prac- 
tices of nature in the treatment of the land. Yet, in every 
generation, there are men who proclaim that because nature 
neither plows nor tills, therefore man should not. The only 
infallible guide to the proper treatment of the soil is experi- 
ence, not mere science, nor speculation ; but science explains 
the laws and directs the application of them when once ex- 
perience has discovered them. 

In fact, experience is law, for experience that persists is 
that which gives consecutively uniform results under like con- 
ditions. All experience proves that frequent tillage and the 
addition of humus quickly and invariably ameliorate and im- 
prove" the soil. It is folly to attempt to controvert the facts 
by mere speculation. On the other hand, experience proves 
that the addition of chemical fertilizers does not invariably 
visibly benefit the soil ; therefore, the value of such applica- 
tions must depend upon local or transient conditions. 

c. The nursery lands.— The best nursery lands, at least in 
New York state, are those which contain much clay. This 
soil is the most easily injured by unwise or careless treat- 
ment and by the loss of organic matter. 



182 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

The nursery crop occupies the land for three to five years. 
During all this time the land receives no addition of organic 
matter, and finally even the roots are taken out of it. In 
very many cases the trees are planted and dug when the soil 
is wet or very dry, and, it is therefore, quickly and very se- 
riously injured in its "grain," or its physical condition. 

Nurserymen find that if the land is rested in clover or 
grass for a few years it will again grow trees. This rota- 
tion, like all others, is a means of ameliorating the physical 
condition of the soil as well as the chemical condition of 
it. A part of the rotation must aim at the incorporation of 
humus. Therefore, every famous rotation has a "rest" crop in it. 

An incidental advantage of any rotation is the variety of 
tillage imposed by it. A rotation of tools and of methods 
and seasons of working the land, is often as important as 
the other results of alternate cropping. 

Extended figures of chemical analyses^ of nursery stock 
show that the amounts of potash, phosphoric acid and nitro- 
gen which such stock removes from the land is really very 
small, and less than that removed by similar bulk or weight 
of corn or wheat. Experiments now being made show that 
the addition of concentrated or chemical manures to heavy 
nursery lands does not promise very important results ; but 
there are greater hopes from experiments in the sowing of 
crimson clover and other cover crops in the nursery rows, 
and in the use of stable manures. There are instances of 
excellent results following the addition of stable manure to 
nursery lands between the trees in the fall. One piece of 
land so treated has grown excellent plum trees for twenty 
consecutive years. There is no necessary reason why nursery 
stock should not follow nursery stock as well as wheat fol- 
low wheat, except that the land is usually more clay-like, 
the rotation or cropping is longer, and the addition of humus 
or fiber to the soil is less. " 

d. The conclusions. — The difficulty, then, is not one of amount 

♦Consult 10th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta. (1891), and Bull. 103, Cornell 
Exp. Sta. ; also Rep. Amer. Assoc. Nurserymen. 1896, 43-45. 



Treatment of Nursery Lands. 188 

of plant -food so much as of the availability of that food by 
improving the physical conditions of the soil. The soil must 
be warm, soft, mellow, and the plant must be comfortable. 

The trouble is, not that nursery trees take so much from 
the soil, but that the rotation is too long, the fiber is burned 
out of the soil, and much of the working of the land is 
untimely. 

Certain lands are not readily injured by nursery cultiva- 
tion, and these may grow several continuous crops of trees. 

Now and then the nurseryman can augment the growth 
of his stock by extra attention to tillage (it is assumed that 
he always tills well), and by the addition of some quick 
nitrogen compound, as nitrate of soda ; but these are gener- 
ally only temporary correctives. The complete or fundamental 
corrective for nursery land is rotation ; but the length of 
this rotation may often be shortened, or even entirely re- 
duced, by the judicious intercultural use of stable manures 
and cover crops. 

The conclusion was made that the physical condition of 
the soil is a subject of greater or earlier importance than 
its chemical constitution ; that the value of rotation of crops 
lies largely in its ameliorating effect upon the physical con- 
dition, and that nursery lands are no exception in demand- 
ing such rotation. Instead of thinking it strange that trees 
do not readily follow trees, we should rather think it strange 
if they did. Because the crop is of several years' duration, 
it becomes necessary that the alternating cropping should also 
be extended. A system of rotations must be practiced in 
blocks of years, not in single years. But this alternating 
cropping can be greatly shortened by giving greater attention 
to the addition of fiber to the soil while the nursery stock 
is growing. There are instances in which the alternation 
may be made short, and some in which there need be hardly 
any. Professor Bailey said that he did not look for a gen- 
eral corrective of the depletion of nursery land, therefore, by 
the addition of concentrated or chemical fertilizers, but by 
better management of the lands. 



184 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



COVER CROPS. 

A cover crop* is one which is used for the par- 
ticular purpose of securing its mulching and phys- 
ical effect upon the land in the intervals between 
the regular crops or the normal seasons of tillage. 
A sowed crop in the orchard may be valuable in 
two ways: by affording a cover to the land, and by 
improving the soil when it is plowed in. As a 
cover, it may keep down weeds, and protect the land 
from injurious effects of frost. As a green manure, 
it may add fiber to the soil, and thus augment its 
power of holding fertility and moisture, and it may 
add directly to the fertility of the land. This late 
crop catches and holds the leaching nitrates which 
the tree -roots utilize earlier in the season. Taken 
as a whole, the cover crop may be said to improve 
the soil in eight ways: 

I. It directly improves the physical condition of 
the land : 

Prevents hard soils from cementing or pud- 
dling ; 
Holds the rains and snows until they have 

time to soak away into the land ; 
Dries out the soil in spring, making early 

tillage possible ; 
Sometimes serves as a protection from frost. 

♦Term first used in this connection in Bull. 61, Cornell Exp. Sta. 3331 
(Dec. 1893). 



Cover Crops and Moisture. 185 

n. It improves the chemical conditions of the soil: 
Catches and holds some of the leaching ni- 
trates ; 
. Adds humns; 

Renders plant -foods available; 
Appropriates nitrogen, if it is leguminous. 
As a rule, crops grown for cover alone should 
be sown not earlier than midsummer. The most 
thorough tillage can then be given early in the sea- 
son, and the benefits of the cover can be secured 
for the early fall and winter. It is generally advis- 
able to grow a crop which answers for both a cover 
and green manure, although it is easily possible to 
make the soil too nitrogenous for some fruits by 
the extravagant use of such fertilizers. It will also 
be observed, from the above enumeration of the bene- 
fits arising from cover crops, that crops which are 
killed by the winter may still be exceedingly use- 
ful. The reader must also be reminded, in passing, 
that much of the value of the cover crop depends 
upon its being plowed under very early in spring, 
as explained in the last chapter. 

There is much confusion in the popular mind 
concerning the relation of cover crops to moisture. 
Some contend that any crop which shades the ground 
will keep the surface moist and conserve moisture, 
whilst others, knowing that all plants exhale water, 
consider that any crop tends to make the land dry. 
Both these opinions are partly correct. A crop 
which occupies the soil the entire season, and which 
does not allow of cultivation, will make the land 



186 The Principles of Fruit -growing, 

dry, whilst one sowed late in the season upon land 
which has been thoroughly tilled during May, June 
and July, does not seriously rob the soil of mois- 
ture. At all events, there need be no fear of dry- 
ing out the soil by sowing a late crop, for the 
serious injury of drought is usually effected before 
such crops are established, and rainfall is then becom- 
ing abundant ; and the tree needs to be checked, 
rather than stimulated, at this season, by the trans- 
fer of the nitrates and moisture to other plants. 
The most marked way in which such crops conserve 
moisture is by means of the fiber and humus which 
they impart to the soil when plowed under ; but 
even this humus cannot compete with cultivation as 
a retainer of moisture. 

An experiment at Cornell* illustrates the value 
of cultivation over a green crop occupying the land 
the entire season, in a dry year. The orchard is 
a hard clay, — just the soil which is benefited by the 
loosening effects of green manures. The orchard was 
divided into three portions in 1890, a year after 
the trees were set. One -third has received liberal 
annual dressings of commercial fertilizers, and has 
been well tilled ; another third has had no treat- 
ment except good tillage ; and the remaining third 
has had liberal applications of potash, and has then 
been sown early to a nitrogenous (leguminous) green 
crop. This third portion has simply been plowed 

*Bull. 72, Cornell Exp. Sta. This experiment has not yet progressed far 
enough for report upon methods of fertilizing, and is mentioned here only 
for the purpose of contrasting methods of cultivation. 



Cover Crops vs. Tillage. 187 

and fitted well each spring, and then sown, having 
received no subsequent tillage. The crops were all 
plowed under the following spring. The following 
are the crops : 

1890. Mixed beans. Sowed June 16. 

1891. Field peas. Sowed June 24. 

1892. Vetch. Sowed June 16. 

1893. Cow peas. Sowed June 19. 

1894. Field peas. Sowed June 14. 

Here, then, is a chance to compare the effects 
of tillage with humus in a season of almost unpre- 
cedented drought. Upon September 1, 1894, the green 
manured strip was much the driest portion of the 
orchard. The tree growth in this portion was much 
less vigorous, and the leaves were perceptibly lighter 
colored, than on the adjacent plots. Even the unfer- 
tilized but well tilled tract showed a better foliage. 
In this green manure portion, leaves on peach trees 
were then beginning to yellow and fall from the effects 
of drought, whilst the same rows, when they struck 
the other plots, showed perfect foliage. In apricots 
the effects were also marked. Pears and plums also 
showed the differences. In the cultivated portions one 
could easily stir up loose earth with the toe of his 
boot, while in the green manured part one had to 
dig from six to ten inches in a hard soil before he 
could find visible moisture. Careful tests showed the 
same fact. Samples of soil were taken to the depth 
of one foot on September 1, by means of a soil 
sampler, eight samples being lifted from representa- 
tive parts of both the tilled and untilled areas. 



188 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Four of these samples were combined into one, and 
this mixture constituted the complete sample which 
was used in a test for moisture ; that is, there were 
two samples of untilled soil and two of tilled soil, 
but each of these was made up of four other sam- 
ples selected from various parts of the areas. These 
samples were carefull}- weighed, and were then equally 
fire -dried and weighed again. The loss in weight 
represents the comparative content of free water in 
the different samples. The results are as follows : 

Sample I. Sample II. 

Moisture in tilled soil, percent 11.3 12.8 

Moisture in uutilled soil, per cent 8.7 9.6 

In addition to this difference in moisture between 
the two areas, it should be said that in the tilled 
land it was distributed to within two inches or less 
of the surface, while in the untilled land the first 
few inches was exceedinglj- dry. In other words, 
in the tilled land nearly the entire soil was in con- 
dition to part with its fertility, while in the other 
the uppermost and richest soil was inactive. 

All this emphasizes the fact that tillage alone is 
better than green manuring alone; but the best re- 
sults would no doubt have been obtained if good till- 
age had been given for two or three months, and if 
the green crop had been sown in July or August. 
In general, this combination is an excellent one for 
orchards, particularly for such lands as lack nitrogen 
and vegetable matter, and for those fruits which 
are benefited by winter protection of the soil. 



i 



Choice of Cover Crops. 189 

The kinds of cover crops. — It will now be asked 
what is the best plant for cover and green manure. 
It is hard to tell. Clover is a stand-by, but i1 
often fails to "catch" late in the season, and it 
should, stand on the land an entire season in ordei* 
to obtain its full value. Upon good and well- 
tilled lands and in favorable seasons, considerable 
herbage can be obtained for turning under in the 
spring if it is sown the preceding August or Sep- 
tember ; but in general it is unreliable as an annual 
crop, and is not adapted to fruit lands. 

It should be said at the outset that the choice 
of the proper crop for the covering of an orchard 
is a local matter, the same as the determination of 
the method of tillage or the kind of fertilizer is. 
There is also no one cover crop which is best for all 
purposes and all conditions. The grower must 
study the condition of his trees and his land, and 
then judge as best he may what course he shall pur- 
sue. Nature's cover crops, at least upon farms, are 
weeds, and these may be useful if allowed to grow 
in the fall after the tillage is completed. The 
difficulty is that they cannot always be relied upon to 
cover the land at the time when they are wanted, 
most of them do not live through the winter, and 
they are very likely to become a serious nuisance. 
It is best, therefore, to substitute some other plant 
for the weeds. In approaching the question of the 
choice of cover crops, the grower must remember that 
there are two great classes in respect to theii- 
power to gather nitrogen. The one class is non- 



190 The Principles of Fruit -grotving. 

leguminous, comprising those plants which take only 
such nitrogen as has already been worked over into 
available form by plants or animals; the other class is 
the leguminous plants, comprising those which have 
the power of appropriating and utilizing free nitrogen. 
For purposes of cover and protection, the non- legu- 
minous crops may be just as good as the nitrogen- 
gatherers, and when the fruit plants are growing 
very vigorously they may be decidedly better than the 
others because, by not adding nitrogen, they do not 
over -stimulate the growth. A rotation of cover crops 
will nearly always be found to be important. It is 
perfectly possible to put so much nitrogen into the 
land that the trees or plants grow too vigorously 
or too late in the season. This may be especially 
apparent upon peaches, apricots, grapes, and the 
like. It should also be said that some of the most 
useful of these cover crops will not thrive upon hard 
and intractable land, and in such cases a rougher 
and coarser crop must be used. 

The golden scale of cover crops for orchards be- 
gins with rye and ends with crimson clover. Lands 
which are very sandy and leachy, as well as those 
which are hard and lumpy, are usually not adapted to 
the growth of crimson clover, especially in the north. 
Such lands must be gradually ameliorated by the use 
of other plants, and, as a rule, the best plant to 
begin with is rye. This plant thrives upon a great 
variety of soils, it demands little preparation of the 
land, the seeds are large and germinate at a low tem- 
perature, it can be sown late in the season after 



Kinds of Cover Crops. 191 

cultivated crops are removed, and it is exceedingly 
hardy. Rye may be sown upon the very moment of 
the freezing up of the land, and it will sometimes 
germinate the following spring. It is ordinarily best, 
however, to sow it about a month or six weeks 
before the land is expected to freeze up ; and for the 
purpose of securing a cover, not less than one and 
one -half bushels should be sown to the acre when 
orchards are young. When the trees have begun to 
shade the ground, a less quantity will answer. 

Another plant which is sometimes used to begin 
the amelioration of intractable lands is Indian corn, 
sown broadcast very thickly, six weeks or two months 
before killing frost. Although it does not stand 
the winter, it nevertheless affords an excellent cover 
for the land and supplies besides a large amount 
of herbage. 

Buckwheat may be used for the same purpose, 
sown so late in the season that it will reach its 
full height but will not go to seed. There is danger, 
however, of using buckwheat too much, and only 
an occasional crop of it — if any at all — should be 
used upon orchards which are growing upon the hard 
types of lands. 

Turnips and rape are also to be recommended 
in certain cases. Turnips sown late in July in the 
north make a complete cover of the land, and fur- 
nish so much bulk and moisture as to greatly 
improve the character of the soil when they are 
plowed under the following spring. Turnips are 
especially good to begin the process of improve- 



192 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

ment upon certain hard lands which are much in- 
clined to be dry. 

Oats, wheat, barley, millet, and various other 
quick - growing crops may be utilized as covers, but 
they are less adapted to the purpose than those 
which have been mentioned. In order to impress 
the different qualities of cover crops upon the 
mind, it may be well to say that rye and corn, and 
the like, are to cover crops what pigs and mules 
are to domestic animals. 

Amongst the leguminous crops are the various 
kinds of peas, beans, vetches, and the clovers. If 
it is desired to grow a leguminous crop upon land 
which is hard and dry, it will be necessary to 
choose those with large and quick -germinating seeds, 
like the beans and the field peas. Common field 
beans may be sown broadcast late in the season, 
and if they can have six weeks of uninterrupted 
growth, will make a good cover before killed by 
frost. Canada peas are not injured by the early 
frosts of fall, and therefore may be sown later. 
At the Cornell Station, peas sown as late as the 
20th of September reached a height of about six 
inches, and were large enough to afford a fairly good 
cover, if they were sown very thick. But, in gen- 
eral, in the northern states, it is advisable to sow 
not later than the last of August or the first of 
September. 

The cow pea ( Vigna Sinensis) can often be used 
to the greatest advantage, especially in the middle 
and southern states, where the long seasons allow 



Cow Peas for Cover. 193 

it to make a most luxuriant and satisfactory growth. 
In fact, it is probably destined to fill the office in 
the southern states that the red clover does in the 
north, and, if proi)erly used, can, no doubt, be made 
the means of filling the burned -out soils of the 
south with fresh life and vigor. It is killed by the 
earliest frost, and is, therefore, not advisable at the 
north, unless sown early or upon land which is in 
good condition, so that it may obtain a quick start. 
Experiments with this plant have been made at the 
Cornell Station,* with the following results: "Six- 
teen varieties were grown at the Station this year 
[1893] for the purpose of ascertaining which ones 
will mature in this latitude ; and over half an acre 
was sown to the Black pea, which Professor Massey, 
of North Carolina, thought likely to prove the best 
variety for our purpose. These black peas were 
obtained of L. R. Wyatt, Raleigh, N. C., and were 
sown June 20. The land was clay, and variable in 
contour, comprising two dryish knolls, with a moist 
vale lying between them. The peas were slow in 
starting, owing to the hard soil, but they made a 
fair growth in August and early September. In the 
vale, the plants grew nearly two feet high and cov- 
ered the ground well, but on the knolls the soil 
was not covered. The plants had just begun to 
flower when they were killed by the first frost. 
The leaves fell off, and the bare, stiff stems now 
afford very little protection to the soil. 

♦Bull. 61, Cornell Exp. Sta., 334. 



194 The Principles of Fruit-growing 

"The varieties of cow peas, grown for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining the earliness of the various 
kinds, were sown May 31, in rich garden loam. 
These peas were obtained from the Experiment 
Stations of North Carolina, Arkansas and Louisiana. 
The varieties ripening seeds are ten, as follows: 

Black, from North Carolina. 

Black Eye, North Carolina. 

Blue, Louisiana. 

California Bird's Eye, Arkansas \DMichos 
sesquipedalis) . 

Clay, North Carolina. 

Gray Prolific, North Carolina. 

Large White, Louisiana. 

Whippoorwill, North Carolina, Arkansas, Louis- 
iana. 

Yellow Prolific, North Carolina. 

Yellow Sugar Chowder, Arkansas. 
"The varieties which did not mature seeds are 
the following: 

Black, from Louisiana. 

Brown Eye, Arkansas. 

Clay, Louisiana. 

Conch, North Carolina. 

Indian, Louisiana. 

King, Louisiana. 

Lady, Louisiana. 

Purple Hull, Louisiana. 

Stewart, North Carolina. 

"The varieties which seemed best adapted to this 



Vetch for Cover. 196 

latitude were the Black and Whippoorwill. The lat- 
ter fruited also at Lansing, Michigan, in 1887. It 
will be seen that there appears to be a difference 
between samples of the same variety coming from 
different sources. The Black pea from North Caro- 
lina seed matured well, but that from Louisiana 
stock was too late. The same difference occurred 
in the Clay. This is what might have been ex- * 
pected, and it emphasizes the importance of securing 
seed from the northernmost station, when choosing 
stock for growing in the north. On the whole, 
the Black cow pea seems best adapted to growing 
in central New York. A small patch of this was 
sown on a rich, loose soil July 17, and the plants 
made as heavy growth as those sown upon the clay 
soil nearly a month earlier. But the cow pea af- 
fords so much less winter protection to the soil 
than the vetch, without any counterbalancing ad- 
vantages, that it can scarcely be recommended for 
an orchard (-over in the north." Upon mellower 
and moister lands, however, good results have fre- 
quently been obtained with cow peas in the northern 
states, and they are growing in favor. 

The use of the vetch or tare as a cover plant 
was brought forward by the Cornell Station,* and 
reported upon in 1892, as follows: ''Orchard lands 
are nearly always benefited by some cover or mulch 
during a part of the year, especially during fall 
and winter. One of the values of sod lies in the 
protection to the soil, but a sod cannot be obtained 

♦Bull. 49, Cornell Exp. Sta., 1892. 



196 ^J^he Frinciples of Jfruit- growing. 




Fig. 20. A good stand of vetch, in November, Sown in early July. 



in a single season. If orchards can be cultivated in 
spring and early summer, and then protected with 
some growth which will shade the soil and keep 



Experiment with the Vetch. 197 

it moist during the remainder of the warm weather, 
and afford some protection from frost during winter, 
the best results will undoubtedly be obtained, as a 
rule. This cover crop should also afford fertiliz- 
ing materials to the soil when turned under, and 
greatly improve the mechanical character of the soil 
as well. 

" The leguminous plants — those belonging to the 
clover family — at once suggest themselves, because 
they are rich in nitrogen, and may therefore serve 
both as cover and fertilizer. We have tried mixed 
beans and field peas, but there are objections to both, 
although either one is probably better than weeds or 
bare ground. This year we have tried the European 
vetch or tare [Vicia sativa) , seed of which we ob- 
tained of J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. This 
plant is grown for forage in England. A half bushel 
of seed was sown June 16 upon five -eighths of an acre 
of heavy clay loam. It was sown broadcast upon a 
freshly prepared surface, and well dragged in. The 
seed could have been sown later with equally as good 
effect, no doubt, and the cultivation of the orchard 
could have been continued for ten days or two weeks 
longer. The young trees of pear, plum and apricot 
have made an excellent growth this year among the 
vetch. The vetch started somewhat slowly, and the 
seeding seemed to have been too thin ; but by the 
middle of September the ground was covered thickly. 
Frost came October 1, but the vetch was not injured, 
and it continued to grow until the middle of the 
month, and remained green still longer. It made a 



198 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

remarkable cover, growing knee-high in a dense mat, 
and everywhere complete! j^ covering the ground. It 
began to flower in September, but no seeds ripened 
except upon a few poor spots. Upon light soils, 
seeds would probably form freely, but the plant is 
an annual, and is not likely to become a weed. 
The roots do not extend deep.- With the approach 
of hard freezing weather, the stalks fell upon the 
ground, where they now lie like a thin, even cover- 
ing of old hay. The stems are soft, and can be 
easily plowed under in spring, and will soon decom- 
pose; and they will not keep the soil wet too late 
in spring, which is an important point upon clay 
soils." 

The following year a second report was made 
upon it: "The vetch is an annual leguminous plant, 
which continues its growth long after frost, and 
which mats down with the snow into a perfect, 
carpet -like covering. In the spring, the vines are so 
well decayed that the cover can be plowed under 
easily. The vetch can be sown late in June or early 
in July in this state, and the plants will cover the 
ground with a dense tangled mulch two feet deep 
when winter sets in. Last year (1892), we sowed 
the vetch June 16. This year we sowed one area 
June 20, and another June 28. Both made an ideal 
mulch, and the plants were green and still grow- 
ing late in November. They produced no seeds, and 
but very few flowers. About a bushel of seed 
should be sown to the acre. The seed is large 
and germinates readily, and is likely to catch at 



Crimson Clover for Cover. 199 

almost any time duriug the summer. Some idea of 
the dense growth of the vetch this year may be 
obtained when I say that one patch overcame and 
obscured a heavy growth of horse-radish which had 
been in the ground two years. I am confident that 
upon fairly good soil, good results can be obtained 
with vetch sown as late as the middle and possibly 
the last of July." 

Crimson or scarlet clover was brought emphati- 
cally to the fore as a cover plant for orchards by 
the Delaware Experiment Station* in 1892. It has 
been the occasion of much speculation and much 
misunderstanding. Like other novelties, it has been 
hailed by some as a plant which is bound to revo- 
lutionize orchard management and to make planta- 
tions productive; and others, who have failed, have 
discouraged its use entirely. The fact is, as already 
pointed out, that crimson clover is only one step oi- 
round in the ladder of cover crops, and it is ordi- 
narily the last and the highest. By this it is meant 
that it will not thrive upon hard or poorly tilled 
land. It must be sown in midsummer or a trifle 
after, when the ground is likely to be dry. The 
seeds are small and oily, and the grower is very 
likely to fail in secnring a "catch." Upon the better 
tilled lands, however, crimson clover may be expected 
to succeed as often as any other plant of its class 
will. People have also made a mistake in expecting 
too heavy a growth of herbage in the crimson clover. 
It is an annual plant, normally completing its entire 

*Biill. 16, Del. Exp. St:i., March, 1892. 



200 



The Principles of Fruit -growing. 



growth in a single season. When sown at midsea- 
son, therefore, it should not be expected to yield a 
very heavy crop. If it should arrive at that stage 
when it nearly or wholly covers the surface of the 
ground with a thin, close mat, it will have reached 
its most profitable condition. Neither is it necessary 
that the plant should stand the winter and grow in 
the spring. Turnips, maize, vetch, and other tender 
plants are known to be very useful as orchard cov- 




Fig. 21. A good stand of crimson clover as it looks before growth has begun 
in the spring. 

ers, although they pass the winter in the dead state. 
If the crimson clover passes the winter and grows 
in the spring, much will be gained; but if it should 
not pass the winter, nothing will be lost. In respect 
to the proper time for sowing crimson clover, it may 
be said that if it is sown very early in the season 
(that is, before the first of July), it is likely to be- 
come too large and ripe, and be killed by the win- 
ter; if it is sown too late (that is, after the middle 



Legumes as Fertilizers. 201 

of August in the north), it will ordinarily not attain 
sufficient foothold to be able to withstand the heav- 
ing by frost. Crimson clover may be sown amongst 
Indian corn at the last cultivation, but in orchards it 
is ordinarily sown from the middle of July to the 
middle of August in the north, upon a well prepared 
seed-bed, and is then lightly dragged in. In old or- 
chards, six quarts to the acre is a sufficient amount 
of seed; in open lands, about eight quarts are re- 
quired. 

The following analyses show the fertilizer values 
of the various leguminous plants here discussed. 
The vetches and peas were analyzed at the Cornell 
Station. The analysis of cow peas is taken mostly 
from Professor Teller's recent studies in Arkansas, 
those of clovers from reliable sources for comparison: 

VETCH, READY TO BLOOM, ROOTS AND TOPS. 

Original substance. Dl-y substance. 

Nitrogen 65 percent. 3.1 percent. 

Phosphoric acid 146 " .7 " 

Potash 475 " 2.28 " 

Water 79.15 

PEAS, 2 TO 3 FEET HIGH, NO FLOWERS, ROOTS AND TOPS. 
Original substance. Dry substance. 

Nitrogen 451 per cent. 2.33 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid 113 " .58 " 

Potash 361 '' 1.86 " 

Water 80.61 

PEAS, 6 INCHES HIGH, ROOTS AND TOPS. 

Original substance. Dry Substance. 

Nitrogen 34 percent. 2.43 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid 086 " .62 " 

Potash 179 " 1.28 " 

Water 86.05 



202 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

cow PEAS (WHIPPOORWILL) IN BLOSSOM, STRAW ONLY. 

Original substance. Dry substance. 

Nitrogen 618 per cent. 3.09 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid .1 " .5 " 

Potash 396 " 1.98 " 

Water 80. 



RED CLOVER— A\ KKAUE OF SEVERAL ANALYSES. 

Original substance. Dry substance. 

Nitrogen 41 per cent. 2.05 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid 13 " .m " 

Potash 45 " 2.24 " 

Water 80. " 



CRIMSON CLOVER (TRIFOLIUM INCARNATUM). 

Original substance. Dry substance. 

Nitrogen 43 per cent. 2.45 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid 13 " .74 " 

Potash 49 '• 2.80 " 

Water 82.50 



FERTILIZING THE FRUIT PLANTATION. 

Having now discussed how, by tillage and cover 
crops, the land maj^ be made fit for the growing 
of fruit plants, we come to the question of what 
plant -foods may be added to the soil. It should 
first be said that fruit plants use up plant -foods 

Note. The following figures show the approximate quantities of seed which 
are recommended per acre for cover crops in young orchards : 



Barley 2 to 2K bus. 

Beans 1>^ to 2 " 

Buckwheat 1 

Clover, crimson 8 to 16 lbs. 

- red 6 to 12 " 

Corn 23^ to 3 bus. 



Millet 1 to 1>^ bus. 

Oats 23^ to 3 " 

Pea 2 to 3 " 

Rye 13^ to 23^ " 

Turnip 3 to 4 lbs. 

Vetch 1 bus. 



Cow pea 2 " \ Wheat 2 to 2^ 



Plant -food Removed by Trees. 203 

the same as other crops, and yet the common neglect 
of orchards seems to show that many people think 
otherwise, or else do not think at all. In fact, the 
depletion of the land by fruit trees is more serious 
than by annual crops, from the fact that plant- 
foods are locked up for many years in the trunks 
and branches of the trees, whilst a large part of the 
fertilizing constituents in common crops returns to 
the soil each year. On the other hand, it should be 
said that the roots of trees have a larger foraging 
area than the roots of small crops do. This is well 
shown in Figs. 17 and 18 (pages 160 and 162). The 
former shows the roots running far away in the 
poorly tilled soil in search of food, and the latter 
shows the home -staying roots in the rich soil. 

Roberts has computed,* from analyses, the values 
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash taken from 
an acre by apple trees (the trees thirty -five feet 
apart) in twenty years, counting in ten crops of 
fruit : 

Value. 

" Total in fruit for twenty years $147.00 

Total in leaves for twenty years 160.51 

Total in wood for life of tree 70.00 

Grand total $.377.51 

"The value of nitrogen, etc., in any given case is 
so indefinite and variable that stress should not be 
laid on values as given above, but on the total 
amounts of plant -food used by the orchard. 

*BuU. lO.ir Coruell Exp. Station. 



204 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

"The total amount of nitrogen, exclusive of that 
used in the growth of the trees, is 1,336.8 pounds, 
of phosphoric acid 310 pounds, and of potash 1,895.4 
pounds. To restore the potash alone, as above, and 
that used by the growth of the tree, it would re- 
quire 21.69 tons of high-grade ashes containing 5 
per cent of potash. To restore the nitrogen as 
above, would require 16.19 tons per acre of a com- 
mercial fertilizer containing 5 per cent of nitrogen. 

"How much of this plant -food is usually fur- 
nished to the orchard by leguminous plants and by 
feeding supplementary foods to animals which graze 
upon it, and how much by the fallen leaves and 
apples which are not blown or carried off, cannot 
be told. 

"While some of the computations and conclusions 
are based on estimates, yet it is believed that the 
tables represent average conditions, and need only 
the good judgment of the observant reader to make 
them apply to his individual case with such degree 
of accuracy as to give valuable aid in the care and 
feeding of orchards. 

"Many old orchards have not only been making 
these large demands on the soil for the last twenty 
years, but in many instances the land has been used 
for the production of hay or grain, or more fre- 
quently for the growing of lambs or pigs, with 
little or no supplementary food. The grazing of 
orchards, especially with growing animals without 
extra food, is as certain to deplete the land as grain 
raising, though the soil robbery is not so rapid. 



Plant -food Consumed by Apples. 205 

''These investigations, when considered in all their 
bearings, lead one to wonder not why old orchards 
are failing, but why they have not ceased to pro- 
duce merchantable fruit long since." 

Another calculation by the same investigator 
shows the amount of plant -food which may be ex- 
pected to be carried awaj' in the fruit, and blown 
off in the leaves (not computing the amount in the 
wood), for the period between the ages of 13 and 
33 years of apple trees : 

Apples. Leaves. Value. 

"Nitrogen 498.60 lbs. 456.75 lbs. $143.30 

Phosphoric acid 38.25 " 126. '' 11.50 

Potash 728.55 " 441. '* 52.63 

Total value $207.45 

"While the above results are reached by assum- 
ing a given amount of apples and leaves per year 
in a bearing orchard, and while the facts in any 
given case at any given time may vary widely, yet 
it is believed that they are valuable, as they fur- 
nish a means of measuring in any given case, with 
a great degree of accuracy, the amount of soil ex- 
haustion." 

He also "shows that an average crop of apples 
removes in round numbers eleven pounds of nitro- 
gen, nearly one pound of phosphoric acid and six- 
teen pounds of potash, and that the leaves of a 
tree large enough to produce the apples would con- 
tain ten pounds of nitrogen, nearly three pounds of 
phosphoric acid and ten pounds of potash, or a total 



206 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

of twenty -one pounds nitrogen, three pounds phos- 
phoric acid, twenty -six pounds potash." 

"As a clearer comprehension is had by comparing 
unfamiliar things with familiar things, a table follows 
which gives in brief the soil exhaustion which is 
likely to occur from a continuous twenty -year wheat 
production. Here, again, an average yield has been 
assumed which, while approximately correct for New 
York, may be wide of the mark in some states where 
the average yield of wheat falls to eight or ten bush- 
els per acre. 

"The following tables show the amounts and 
values of the fertilizing ingredients removed by wheat 
(grain and straw) in twentj years' continuous crop- 
ping, assuming an average yield of fifteen bushels per 
acre and seven pounds of straw to three pounds of 
grain : 

"COMPOSITION OF WHEAT AND STRAW. 

Water, Nitrogen, Phos. acid, Potash, 

per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. 

Grain 14.75 2.36 .89 .61 

Straw 12.5(5 ..559 .12 .51 

"amounts ani> value op plant-food removed in one year 

AND in twenty YEARS. 

Nitrogen, Phos, acid. Potash, Total 

lbs. lbs. lbs. value. 

Grain, 1 year 21.24 8.01 5.49 $3.99 

Grain, 20 years 424.80 160.20 109.80 79.86 

Straw, 1 year 11.74 2. .52 10.71 2.42 

Straw, 20 years 234.78 50.40 214.20 48..37 

Total value in wheat, grain and straw for 20 j ears . $128.23 

Total value in apple, fruit and leaves for 20 years. . 207.45 

"The above table shows that the orchard requires. 



Needs of Fruit Trees. 207 

if fruitful, plant -food equal in value to about eighty 
dollars more than the wheat. No one would think 
for a moment of trying to raise wheat, even on our 
best New York land, for twenty consecutive years, 
even though the soil was fitted in the best possible 
manner yearly." 

Respecting the need of fertilizers for orchards, 
Voorhees writes as follows:* "It is argued by many, 
and sometimes by those who should know better, that 
fruit-growing is quite similar to growing trees; that 
the question of soil exhaustion is not a matter of 
very great importance, provided the soil is well culti- 
vated, and that all soils contain sufficient quantities 
of the food elements to insure the relatively small 
available supply required from year to year. 

"It is admitted that on soils of good mechanical 
condition, well drained and cultivated, which are 
naturally adapted for fruit as well as other crops, be- 
cause well supplied with the essential constituents — 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime — the 
exhaustion arising from the continuous removal of 
crops will not become apparent for a long time, 
but it should be emphasized that it is only upon 
soils which possess these characteristics that the 
growth of fruit, even poor fruit, can be continued 
for any considerable period without the application of 
manures." 

"It is obvious that such specific results as have 
been obtained concerning the needs of general farm 



*E. B. Voorhees, "Manuring Orchards", before Mass. Hort. See. Mar. 28 



208 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

crops, as grain and grass, for specific plant -food ele- 
ments, cannot be applied with any degree of accuracy 
to fruit crops, particularly the larger fruits, as pears, 
apples, peaches, grapes, and plums, because these dif- 
fer from the cereals, grasses, and vegetables, first, in 
their habits of growth, second, in the character of 
the produce, and third, in their relation to soil ex- 
haustion. 

"In the first place, farm crops, as a rule, require 
but one year for the entire processes of vegetation 
and maturation. For fruit crops, with but few ex- 
ceptions, the purely vegetative processes continue for 
at least three years, and with many kinds much 
longer, while after the fruit -bearing period begins the 
vegetative processes do not cease, but are coincident 
with the growth and ripening of the fruit. In the 
second place, the product of the harvest, namely, the 
fruit, differs very materially in its character from 
that of ordinar}^ farm crops, which mature their fruit 
and die in one season, because a whole season is re- 
quired for its growth and development; that is, it is 
necessary that there shall be a constant transfer of 
the nutritive juices from the tree to the fruit 
throughout the entire growing season, while the 
growth for each succeeding year of both tree and 
fruit is dependent upon the nutrition acquired and 
stored up in buds and branches, as well as upon that 
which may be derived directly from the soil. In the 
third place, the relation of fruit-growing to soil ex- 
haustion is very different from that in general -crop 
farming, because in orchards there is an annual de 



Needs of Fruit Trees. 209 

mand for specific kinds and proportions of soil con- 
stituents; it is really a continuous cropping of the 
same kind; there is no opportunity, as in the case 
of ordinary farm crops, to correct the tendency to 
exhaustion by a frequent change of crops, or the 
frequent growth of those which require different kinds 
and amounts of plant -food constituents. 

"In studying methods of manuring orchards, how- 
ever, it must be admitted that the general princi- 
ples of manuring which apply to fruits apply quite 
as well to farm crops; that is, the essential con- 
stituents of manures must be the same. A fruit tree 
will not make normal growth in a soil destitute of 
nitrogen. That nitrogen encourages leaf -growth is a 
recognized fact, and, since trees grow by means of 
both leaf and root, its presence is required in the 
soil in order to promote the growth and extend the 
life of the tree. It is very evident, too, that pot- 
ash is an essential constituent in the growth of 
fruits, not only because it constitutes a large pro- 
portion of the ash of the wood of the apple, pear, 
cherry, and plum, and more than 50 per cent of 
the ash of fruit, but because it forms the base of 
the well-known fruit acids ; and in order to nourish 
a tree properly, as well as to insure proper ripen- 
ing, phosphoric acid is also very essential, though it is 
apparent from such investigations as have been made 
that this constituent is relatively of less importance 
than for the cereals. 

"It is also a matter of common observation that, 
in the production of stone-fruits particularly, lime 



210 The PrincipU'i< of Frnii- growing. 

is an important constituent. Its function seems to 
be to strengthen the stems and woody portion of 
the tree, to shorten the period of growth, and to 
hasten the time of ripening. Fruit trees growing on 
soils rich in lime show a stocky, steady, vigorous 
growth, and the fruit ripens well, while those on 
soils which contain but little lime, particularly the 
clays, appear to have an extended period of growth, 
the result of which is, that the wood does not 
mature and the fruit does not ripen properly." 

Voorhees also reports* an experiment in the fer- 
tilizing of peaches, showing large gains in crop from 
the separate use of stable manure and fertilizer. 
"It is interesting to observe," he writes — "and it 
is a point of great importance — the effect of an 
abundance of food in overcoming unfavorable weather 
or seasonal conditions. The year 1889 was extremely 
unfavorable, and the crop throughout the state [New 
Jersey] was small. In this experiment the unmanured 
plot yielded at the rate of ten and nine -tenths bas- 
kets per acre, while the manured and fertilized plots 
both showed a yield exceeding one hundred and 
fifty baskets per acre. The manure strengthened and 
stimulated the trees, and enabled them successfully 
to resist such conditions as were fatal to the crop 
on the unmanured land. This point is one that 
is seldom considered in calculating the advantages 
to be derived from proper manuring, though it is of 
extreme value, since the expenses of cultivation, trim- 

*See, also, Repts. N. J. Exp. Sta., 1884-1894. 



Stahh' Manures for Fruits. 21 1 

ming, and interest on investment are quite as great 
in one case as in the other." 

Stable manure. — The kinds of fertilizing applica- 
tions are of two types, stable manures and concen- 
trated or commercial plant -foods. The stable manures 
exercise a most important effect upon the physical 
features of the soil, and, in fact, this is often their 
greatest value. In this respect, stable manures may 
answer much the same purpose as green or cover 
crops, particularly if they are applied in fall or 
early winter. When manure is not sufficient to 
cover the entire plantation, it should be applied to 
the hardest and driest spots only, and these spots 
should be observed and noted the previous season. 
Lands which are so hard or dry that even rye will 
not catch, may be got under way for the cover 
crops by liberal applications of barn manures. Rota- 
tion in the use of fertilizers may be found to be 
as useful as it is in the case of cover crops. A 
soil which has had a liberal application of stable 
manure one year, may profit more by some chemical 
fertilizer the next year. 

In orchards which are thoroughly tilled, the use 
of barn manures should sometimes be discouraged, 
for the chief element of fertility in them — if they 
are not leached — is usually nitrogen. This advice is 
particularly applicable to vineyards, and all other 
fruits which run very strongly to wood. In such 
cases, it is better economy to apply the manures to 
the annual crops of the farm. The old, neglected 
apple orchards of the country, however, may receive 



k 



212 The Principle's of Fruit-growing. 

barn manures with safety; yet, even here it is a 
question if economy would not dictate tillage and 
late green manures to supply the nitrogen, except, 
perhaps, for a season or two when an attempt is 
making to rejuvenate an orchard. Mulching a sod 
orchard with manure often gives fairly good results 
in cases in which the land cannot l)e cultivated ; but 
better results in the way of fertilizing and in freedom 
from weeds and insects can be obtained by pastur- 
ing closely with sheep or swine. 

Chemical fertilizers. — Nitrogen, potassium and 
phosphorus are the elements which need to be ap- 
plied to orchard lands ; and to these should some- 
times be added lime, mostly for its secondary effects 
upon the soil. 

Nitrogen is particularly efficacious in promoting 
growth. ''The general tendenc}^ of nitrogenous ma- 
nures is toward the excessive production of wood 
and foliage," writes E. F. Smith, after having made 
man}' explicit experiments upon peach trees.* In 
fact, the amount of growth and the color of foliage 
are reliable guides for the application of nitrogen. 
When mature or bearing trees make a foot or 
more of growth upon all shoots, and when the 
leaves are of good size and dark color, the orchard 
probably has enough nitrogen. A free application 
of nitrogen to such orchards might do more harm 
than good, in promoting growth at the expense of 
fruit, or, in the case of some stone fruits, in pro- 

*Btill. 9, Section of Veg. Path., Botanical Div. U. S. Dept. Agr.. 142. 



Nitrogen for Orchards. 213 

ducing a poorly matured growth, which will be likely 
to suffer in winter. Orchards are grown for fruit, 
not for forestry purposes. In general, it is better 
to supply nitrogen by good cultivation — which assists 
nitrification — and an occasional green -manure crop, 
than by the application of nitrogenous fertilizers. 
If the orchard is not growing, and is yellowish in 
foliage, good cultivation — begun early and repeated 
very frequently — in connection with the use of pot- 
ash, phosphoric acid and green manures, will com- 
monly correct it. It is probable that lack of 
moisture is quite as much the cause of the weak- 
ness as lack of nitrogen, particularly if the orchard 
has been in sod. Now and then a tree will be 
found which fails to respond to ordinary treatment. 
If the tree is healthy — that is, not attacked by dis- 
ease or borers — it may sometimes be brought into 
a vigorous condition by applying to it a light 
dressing of nitrate of soda ; but this treatment 
need seldom be applied to an entire orchard which 
has been well handled. 

An experiment made by the Cornell Station (Bul- 
letin No. 153) gave very decided results from the use 
of nitrate of soda alone. An apple orchard about 
twenty- five years old and unproductive, standing 
upon a rather hard and dryish light clay loam, was 
plowed in the fall of 1894, and certain trees were 
given an application of ten pounds of nitrate of 
soda. Contiguous rows received heavy applications 
of sulfate of potash and muriate of potash. All 
materials were applied August 11, 1894. The or- 



214 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

chard was plowed again in the fall of 1895, and a 
third time in the spring- of 1896. None of the 
dressings showed any effect in 1895, but in 1896 
the trees which had received the nitrate of soda 
were very remarkably superior to those which had 
received the other treatments and to those which 
had received none. They had very much heavier 
and darker green foliage, so that they could be 
readily distinguished many rods away, and they had 
a heavier load of fruit, which was larger and finer 
than that upon the other trees. This heavier crop 
was probably not due to more profuse blossoming, 
but to a less dropping of young apples. In 1897, 
the trees still showed the effect of the nitrogen. In 
1898, all effects were lost, and the trees and fruits 
could not be distinguished from those which were un- 
treated. 

Nitrogen -fertilizing often exerts a decided influ- 
ence in delaying the maturity of fruit, and it is 
worth while to consider the application of such fertil- 
izers to winter apples which tend to ripen too early. 
These fertilizers also tend to the production of low 
colors in fruit. Lodeman found,* as the result of 
experiment, that "the apples produced upon the 
plot which was, in all probability, the richest in 
nitrogen, were late, and they were also poorly 
colored." 

Potash is generally the most important element 
to be applied directly to orchards, particularly after 

* Rural New-Yorker, Jan. 2, 1897, 2. 



Potash for Fruits. 215 

the trees have reached bearing age. The store of 
available potash in the soil is much increased by 
the thorough tillage which has already been recom- 
mended, but in bearing orchards it should also be 
supplied every year in some commercial form. One 
of the best sources of potash for orchards is wood 
ashes, but this material is so often weakened by 
leaching that it cannot be confidently recommended. 
A good sample of unleached hard wood ashes 
should contain from 5 to 9 per cent of potash, 
but some of the commercial article does not analyze 
above 2 to 3 per cent. Potash in this form has 
a trade value of 4% cents per pound. To this 
value of wood ashes should also be added 2 per 
cent or less of phosphoric acid, now worth 6 cents 
a pound. Forty to fifty bushels to the acre is 
considered to be a good dressing of wood ashes, 
if it has been kept dry. 

Muriate of potash is perhaps the best and most 
reliable form in which to secure potash at the 
present time for fruits. Commercial samples gener- 
ally contain from 80 to 85 per cent of muriate of 
potash, or about 50 per cent of actual potash. 
Kainit is an impure muriate of potash, containing 
about 12 to 15 per cent of potash. An apple or- 
chard in full bearing and upon loose soil may 
receive as high as one thousand pounds of muriate 
of potash per acre, but a normal and economical 
application is from one hundred and fifty to three 
hundred pounds, if applied every year. Sulfate of 
potash is also thought to be a good form in which 



216 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

to buy potash. The commercial article analyzes 50 
per cent or less of actual potash. Sylvinit is a 
lower grade of potassium fertilizer. Its value — like 
that of other materials mentioned — should be reck- 
oned upon the amount of potash present. 

Phosphoric acid may be obtained in the form of a 
high-grade plain superphosphate (like dissolved South 
Carolina rock), in bone compounds, and Thomas 
slag. The plain superphosphate contains about 16 
or 18 per cent of phosphoric acid, and two hun- 
dred to five hundred pounds per acre is a liberal 
and very useful dressing for bearing orchards. The 
bone fertilizers are always valuable. Those which 
are untreated give up their phosphoric acid slowly, 
unless they are very finely ground. Dissolved bone 
gives more immediate results. Thomas or basic slag, 
which is yet less known to farmers in this country, 
has given good results in many tests, but it parts 
with its fertilitj^ very slowly. It is yet too early 
to recommend this material for orchards with full 
confidence. 

In general, phosphoric acid is probably less im- 
portant in fruit plantations than potash, although 
this order is reversed in general farming. Potash 
should undoubtedly^ be the leading factor in orchard 
fertilizers, and nitrogen may be obtained largely, or 
even wholly, in some cases, by means of tillage and 
green crops. It will then be seen that the use of 
combined or " complete " commercial fertilizers may 
not be economical. The best results are to be ex- 
pected when the fruit-grower observes closely the 



Fertilizing Orchards. 217 

behavior of his trees and then applies such materials 
as the plants appear to need. Any of the mate- 
rials mentioned in the foregoing remarks may be 
mixed together, so that the phosphorus and potas- 
sium can be applied at the same sowing. It should 
be said, however, that if wood ashes is mixed with 
a nitrogenous fertilizer, some loss of nitrogen may 
ensue, unless the material is used at once.* 

Voorhees givest the following "practical sugges- 
tions" for the fertilizing of orchards: "A system of 
manuring for cultivated orchards, based upon the 
limited data at ouv disposal, may be outlined as 
follows : 

"To provide vegetable matter and to improve the 
physical quality of poor soils, apply yard manure 
once in four years, in fall or winter, at the rate 
of from five to ten tons per acre. To aid in the 
decomposition of vegetable matter, and to insure a 

*To answer inquiries concerning the prices of fertilizing materials, it may 
be said that muriate of potash costs $40 and upwards per ton, siilfate about 
$48, dissolved boneblack about $24, ground bone about $30, kainit about $13, 
and nitrate of soda 234 cents per pound. These prices vary, of course, with 
the composition or mechanical condition of the materials. The average com- 
position of unleached ashes in the market is about as follows : Potash, 5.25 
per cent ; phosphoric acid, 1.70 per cent ; lime, 34 per cent ; magnesia, 3.40 
per cent. The average composition of kainit is 13.54 per cent potash, 1.15 
per cent lime. The composition of sylvinit (which is said to be known as 
sulfate of potash in some quarters) is about 16 per cent of potash, in the 
form of both muriate and sulfate, mostly the former. The fact that the 
soil itself is the greatest storehouse of plant-food is shown by the follow- 
ing average of thirty-five analyses of the total content of the first eight 
inches of surface soils, per acre : 3,521 pounds of nitrogen, 4,400 pounds oi 
phosphoric acid, 19,836 pounds of potash. Much of this is unavailable, but 
the good tillage and cover cropping which have been recommended tend to 
unlock it. 

t E. B. Voorhees, address before Mass. Hort. Soc. Mar. 28, 1896. 



218 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

sufficiency of lime as plant -food, apply lime at the 
rate of twenty -five busiiels per acre once in five 
years. To provide, in addition, an abundance of all 
forms of available plant -food at the times needed 
for the development of the tree and fruit, applj^ 
annually chemical fertilizers in the following pro- 
portions : 

"Nitrate of soda 100 lbs. 

South Carolina rock superphosphate 100 " 

Ground bone 200 *' 

Muriate of potash 200 ' ' 

"The amounts to be applied depend upon the 
character of the soils, as previously outlined, the 
kind of fruit, and the age and vigor of the tree ; 
these given perhaps mark the minimum. 

"In a number of best orchards the quantities 
applied are very much larger than is here indicated, 
and the larger application is believed by the grow- 
ers to be proportionately profitable. 

"By the recent introduction of crimson clover, 
we have a plant admirably adapted to supply cheaply 
nitrogenous vegetable matter for orchards, and its 
growth is to be recommended wherever the plant 
can be successfully grown, instead of the use of 
barnyard manure, particularly upon the poorest soils, 
until they are abundantly supplied with vegetable 
matter. The clover should be plowed down early in 
the season, in order not to retard the spring growth 
of the trees. Where the conditions are favorable 
for the growth of clover, the application of nitrate 
of soda may be omitted." 



What Treatment is Needed. 219 

Summary statement. — The fruit-grower will no 
doubt desire to ask how he is to tell just what 
kind and what quantity of fertilizers to apply to 
his land. This is one of those questions which no 
person can answer for him. Having studied the 
matter carefully, and having observed his plantation 
from day to day and year to year, he should be 
able to discover about the treatment which it needs. 
As a general statement, it may be said that the 
fruit plantation which is giving satisfactory results 
is receiving the very treatment which it needs ; but 
when it is giving unsatisfactory yields, some change 
in the management should be made. An orchard 
which is in sod and not doing well should certainly 
be plowed and tilled. One which is tilled and is not 
doing well may be benefited by seeding down, or 
it may not. If the growth is strong and rapid, and 
the trees or vines seem to be going to wood at the 
expense of fruit, then some check may be necessary. 
This check may be given by seeding down for a 
time, by giving somewhat less thorough or prolonged 
cultivation, or by the use of rather more mineral 
fertilizers and less nitrogenous ones. In all cases 
io which the growth is not sufficient and the leaves 
are yellow and drop early, it is probable that either 
more nitrogen or more moisture, or both, is needed. 
As a general principle, it may be said that nitrogen 
can be had in sufficient amount by thorough and 
judicious tillage, by the use of leguminous cover 
crops, and by stable manure. In some cases, how- 
ever, quicker and cheaper results may be had by 



220 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

the direct addition of nitrogenous materials, like 
nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, or some of the 
animal compounds. 

The grower should also remember that the plants 
need all the elements of plant growth, and not one 
of them alone. For example, a heavy application of 
nitrogen upon soil which is deficient in potash and 
phosphoric acid cannot be expected to give useful 
results. In the same way, the application of pot- 
ash to soil which is very poor in nitrogen or phos- 
phoric acid would be comparatively useless. - The 
heavy loamy or clay lands nearly always contain 
au abundance of potash and phosphoric acid in 
a more or less unavailable condition, and much of 
these materials can be liberated to the plant by care- 
ful tillage and the incorporation of humus. How- 
ever, it is nearly always advisable, in orchards 
which are bearing, to add these materials in the 
shape of manures or concentrated fertilizers. The 
quickest results following the use of fertilizers will 
be seen upon the sandier lands. Two or three 
years often elapse after the application of chemical 
fertilizers to heavy lands before any decided results 
are observed. In other words, clay lands ordinarily 
show quicker results from tillage than they do from 
jthe application of fertilizers. The farmer should 
bear in mind that he should never rely exclusively 
upon chemical plant -foods, because they contain no 
humus, and the soil is apt to become hard and life- 
less. They should be used in judicious rotation, or 
in connection with cover crops, or stable manures- 



Humus Improves the Laud. 221 

or applications of muck oi- some other organic dress- 
ings. It is not necessary that the chemical fertil- 
izers should be mixed before application ; in fact, 
upon lands of varjdng soil and conformation, it is 
ordinarily better to apply the different ingredients 
separately, because different parts of the plantation 
may need different amounts of the various materials. 
The low lands will ordinarily need less of the nitro- 
gen and perhaps more of the potash and phosphoric 
acid. In general, it is advisable to buy the plant- 
foods separately, as advised in the preceding pages. 
Farmers do not appreciate the importance of 
humus as an ameliorator of land. In farm lands, it 
is usually supplied in form of green crops, stubble 
or sward, and barn manures. When humus is ab- 
sent, sandy soils become too loose and leachy and 
hot, and claj- soils bake and become lumpy. The 
different physical characteristics of (day lumps and 
mellow soils are largely due to the greater amount 
of humus in the good soil, and yet we have seen 
that the chemist may pronounce the cloddy soil 
richer in native plant -food. If the farmer has 
much of this hard, unproductive land, what is to 
be done with it ! To cover it with commercial fer- 
tilizer would be of little benefit. It must first be 
put in fit condition for the growing of crops. A 
crop of clover plowed under would quickly improve 
it, but if tne land is planted to orchard he does 
not care to seed it down. The next recourse is 
stable manure. Of this, perhaps enough can be 
had to cover the hardest spots. For the rest. 



222 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

catch or cover crops must be used. Following the 
early tillage, he can sow rye, and plow it under very 
early in the spring. Now and then he can use a 
fall crop of sowed corn or oats, or something of 
the kind. After a time, he may be able to get 
the land in such condition of tilth as to secure an 
occasional stand of crimson clover. This practice, 
<ontinued judiciously for a few years, ought to radi- 
cally change the character of the land ; but all this 
will be of little avail unless the plowing and cul- 
tivation can also be done in a timely and intelli- 
gent way. All this will take time and patience. He 
may wish that there were some short-cut and lazj^ 
way of improving this land b^^ making some appli- 
cation of fertilizer to it, but there is not. The 
most he can do is to slowly bring it into such 
condition that it will pay to put concentrated fertiliz- 
ers on it. In short, the first step in the enrichment 
of unproductive land is to improve its physical con- 
dition by means of careful and thorough tillage, by 
the addition of humus, and perhaps by underdrainage. 
It must first be put in such condition that plants 
can grow in it. After that, the addition of chemi- 
cal fertilizers may pay by giving additional or re- 
dundant growth. All this means that no amount 
of penance in the way of applications to the land can 
ever atone for the sins of poor tillage ; or, farm- 
ing cannot be done by recipe. 

The gist of the whole matter respecting the use 
of fertilizers is that the grower should experiment 
with his plantation, adding a little more of this 



Summary Conclusions. 223 

and a little more of that as he thinks the different 
trees or the different types of land may need. 
There is no other way of arriving at this local 
knowledge except by trying for oneself. If one is 
observant of the conditions, he will after a time come 
to have an intuitive sense of what the land prob- 
ably needs, but he may not be able to tell just 
why it needs it. In most matters of handicraft in 
agriculture, the skilled man develops methods and 
results almost unconsciously. These methods are 
really founded upon close observation and truthful 
inductions, but the person can rarely ever impart 
this particular information to his neighbor. The 
only general statement, perhaps, which can be made, 
is that liberal applications of potash and phos- 
phoric acid should nearly always be made to bearing 
fruit plants, if the grower desires the best results; 
and he may be able to supply his nitrogen more 
cheaply by cover crops and tillage than by buying 
chemicals. 







CHAPTER V. 

T^^ PLANTING OF FRUIT GROUNDS. 

The subjects which one naturally considers when 
starting out to begin the planting of a fruit area 
fall into four categories, — the choice of the varie- 
ties, the selection of the trees or plants, the actua] 
setting of the stock, and the laying out of the 
fruit plantation. These matters may now be con- 
sidered. 

THE CHOICE OF VARIETIES. 



The most personal matter connected with the 
making of a fruit farm is the subject of choice of 
varieties. This is the one subject upon which most 
questions are asked, and it is also the one upon 
which the least specific and dogmatic advice can be 
given. The choice of varieties depends primarily 
upon the personal preferences of the grower, upon 
the purpose for which the fruit is to be grown, 
and upon the locality. Without knowing these 
three elements, it is impossible for any person to 
give satisfactory advice as to varieties. The grower 
who has no personal preferences for varieties is 
one who has not yet mastered the first essential to 

(224) 



Choosing the Varieties. 225 

successful fruit-growing, — the obtainmeut of a spe- 
cific ideal. In the greater number of cases it is easy 
to answer questions as to what varieties to plant 
by asking the questioner what he wants to plant. 
He will commonly answer his own question fully. 
The intelligent question about varieties is that which 
asks for specific information ; as, for example : 
What is the best red fall apple for southern Ohio? 
What is the earliest raspberry? What is the hardi- 
est apricot ? What is the largest plum 1 What is 
the best strawberry for canning? Such questions 
as these indicate that the questioner has classified 
his own ideas, and that he is driving straight to 
the point for information ; and they are usually 
capable of rather definite answer. When a man 
asks, "What variety of fruit shall I plant?" no one 
should attempt to answer. The writer has long 
since come to the practice of refusing to recom- 
mend specific varieties to individual persons. He 
prefers to name those varieties which he thinks 
might please himself for the purpose or place 
named, or to give lists of the kinds most likely to 
meet the requirements ; but the grower must choose 
for himself. 

There are a few general rules or precepts which 
may be stated to aid the intending fruit -planter in 
the choice of varieties-.* 

1. So far as possible, follow your own personal 
preferences, — the type of fruits which you love best 

♦The whole question of the running out of varieties is discussed in "The 
Survival of the Unlike." 



226 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

or take most interest in. These are the ones with 
which you will most likely succeed. 

2. Obtain a clear and specific ideal of the pur- 
pose for which the fruit is to be grown, — whether 
for dessert, for canning, for a local market, for ex- 
port, for evaporating, and the like. Then choose the 
varieties which are best suited to meet these ideals. 

3. Do not covet a variety simply because it is 
eminently successful in another region. Varieties 
have distinct adaptations to geographical areas. If 
a given variety is a universal success in the plains 
regions, the probabilities are that it will not thrive 
equally well in New England. The farmers of the 
east have learned that they cannot compete with 
those of the west in the growing of wheat, but 
they have not yet learned that one region may not 
be able to compete with another in some particular 
variety of fruit, even though the variety thrive well 
in both. It is a question if the northeastern states 
can compete with the mid -western states in the 
growing of the Ben Davis apple. The south and 
mid -south are being planted extensively to the 
Kieffer pear, largely because it thrives better over a 
large area than most other varieties. It is doubt- 
ful, then, if it is wise to plant it extensively in 
the north, where other pears will thrive which do 
not succeed in the Kieffer region. Diversification 
must come to be more and more important in 
fruit-growing; and any region should grow that 
type of fruit most freely which other regions can- 
not grow so well. 



Choosing the Varieties. 



227 



4. Choose with reference to the local environment 
One must consider the adaptation of the variety to 
his particular climate, to the probable length of his 
season, to his distance from market, 

and to his system of husbandry. 
The adaptation of varieties to soils 
is an important consideration, and 
one which demands closer attention 
as cultivation becomes more intense 
and perfect. As a rule, the finer 
the variet}^ in quality, the less able 
it is to thrive equally well under 
diverse methods of treatment. It 
is partly for this reason that des- 
sert fruits are commonly regarded 
as unreliable and difficult to grow. 
One can scarcely hope for success in 
the best horticulture unless he gives 
particular study to the adaptations of species and 
v^arieties to soils. 

5. Choose with reference to inter -pollination. It is 
known that some varieties of fruits are self -sterile, — 
that is, they are not fruitful when planted alone. This 
sterility may be due, as in the case of the straw- 
berry, to imperfect (oi* unisexual) flowers, or, more 
commonly, to pollen which is impotent upon the 
pistils of the same flower.* This infertility or self- 
sterility is largely a varietal characteristic, yet it is 
no doubt greatly modified by seasonal and environ- 




Fig. 22. Strawberry 
flowers modified by 
weather. 



*For a discussion of the philosophy of this self-sterility, see the essay o» 
■Sex in Fruits," in "Survival of the Unlike," p. 347. 



228 Th(< Prittrijfles of FruU-gr owing. 

inental conditions. It is probable that varieties may 
sometimes be self -fertile and at other times self- 
sterile. The strawDerry flowers in Fig. 22 show the 
marked influence upon pollen -bearing which is ex- 
erted by different conditions. The flowers are of the 
same variety, and were grown under glass. The 
lower one shows the small development of stamens 
in a long cloudy spell, and the upper one shows 
the profusion of stamens which appeared in other 
flowers after two or three days of sunshine. It is 
probable that pollen is more profuse and more potent 
in some years than in others. 

There is very little positive knowledge concerning 
the inter -pollination of fruits, and no subject con- 
nected with pomology is in greater need of study. 
We chiefly know that the most productive orchards 
are usually those of many varieties, and that some 
varieties sometimes refuse to fertilize themselves. The 
most positive knowledge respecting the impotency of 
pollen amongst our common fruits is in connection 
with the plums of the Wild Goose type. The safest 
practice, therefore, is to plant no more than two 
or three rows of any one variety together of fruits in 
which self -sterility is a frequent characteristic (pears, 
plums, apples). The chief point to be observed in se- 
lecting the varieties is that they shall bloom together. 
All pears and apples, and nearly or quite all plums, 
seem to be inter-fertile when they bloom simultaneously. 

The following lists of self- sterile and self -fertile 
fruits are summaries of our present knowledge upon 
the subject: 



Impotent Fruits. 229 

Pears — Varieties more or less self-stertile. — Angou- 
leme, Anjou, Bartlett, Boussock, Clairgeau, Clapp, 
Columbia, De la Ch^ne, Doyenne Sieulle, Easter, Gan- 
sel's Bergamotte, Gray Doyenne, Howell, Idaho, Jones, 
Kieffer, Lawrence, Louise Bonne, Mount Vernon, 
Pound, Sheldon, Souvenir do Congres, Superfin, 
Colonel Wilder, Winter Nelis. 

Varieties generaUy self -fertile. — Bosc, Brockworth, 
Buffum, Diel, Doyenne d'Alengon, Flemish Beauty, 
Heathcote, Le Coute, Manning Elizabeth, Seckel, 
Tyson, White Doyenne. 

Apples — Varieties more or less self-stertile. — Bellfleur, 
Chenango (Strawberry), Gravenstein, King, Northern 
Spy, Norton Melon, Primate, Rambo, Red Astrachan, 
Roxbury Russet, Spitzenburg, Talman Sweet, Willow 
Twig, Winesap. 

Varieties mostly self -fertile. — Baldwin, Ben Davis, 
Codlin, Fallawater, Greening, Oldenburg, Rail's Janet, 
Red Astrachan, Smith Cider. 

Plums — Varieties more or less self -sterile. — Coe 
Golden Drop, French Prune, Italian Prune, Marianna, 
Miner, Ogon, Peach, Satsuma, Wild Goose and many 
other native plums. 

Varieties mostly self -fertile. — Burbank, Bradshaw, 
De Soto, Green Gage, Lombard, Robinson, Damsons. 

Strawberries often lack stamens altogether, whilst 
others, like Crescent, have so few and so poor 
stamens that they are practically self -sterile. Ordi- 
narily, there should be a row of a perfect -flowered^ 
variety for every two rows of a pistillate or infer- 
tile variety. 



230 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

"The quince seems to fruit nearly as well with its own pollen 
as with that of another variety." — Waite. 

Grapes (Beach)* — Unfruitful when planted by them- 
selves. — Black Eagle, Brighton, Eumelau, Massasoit, 
Wilder, Rogers' No. 5, Gaertner, Merrimac, R'^qua, 
Aminia, Essex, Barry, Herbert, Salem. 

Able to set fruit of themselves. — Concord, Dia- 
mond, Niagara, Winchell or Green Monntain, Rogers 
Nos. 13, 24, and 32, Agawam, Delaware. 

Some of the self -sterile varieties mentioned have 
fruited well when planted with pollenizers as follows: 
Bartlett with Nelis, Flemish, Easter; Kieffer with Le 
Conte, Garber ; Coe Golden Drop with French Prune, 
Fellenburg ; Satsuma with Abundance, Burbank, Red 
June; Miner with De Soto, Forest Rose, Wild Goose; 
Wild Goose with De Soto, Newman, Miner. 

6. Determine which are the best varieties for your 
purpose by experimenting, and by diligent inquiry 
of neighbors, pomologists, nurserymen, books, experi- 
ment stations, t and of marketmen. 

THE SELECTION OF THE PLANTS.! 

It is first of all necessary, in selecting the plants 
for fruit grounds, to determine what first-class stock 
is. "The nurserymen contends that he grows the 



*For recent notes, see Beach, Bull. 169, N. Y. Exp. Sta. 

tNotes upon the uses of variety tests by experiment stations will be found 
in "Survival of the Lnlike," pp. 171 and 370, 

tTh« Methods of propagating are fully set forth in "The Nursery- Book." 



First - class Stock . 231 

varieties which the planters want — those for which 
there is a demand. As a matter of fact, he largely 
forces the demand by magnifying the value of those 
varieties which are good growers in the nursery. 
The nurserj^man's business ends with the growing 
of the young tree, and the tree which makes the 
straightest, most rapid and cleanest growth is the one 
which finds the readiest sale. Now, it by no means 
follows that the variety which is the cheapest and 
best for the nurseryman to grow is the best for the 
fruit-grower. Probably every apple -grower is now 
ready to admit that the Baldwin has been too much 
planted, whilst Canada Red and various other varie- 
ties which are poor growers in the nursery row have 
been too little planted. 

"The blame for this condition of things does not 
rest wholly with the nurseryman, although it is 
partly his fault. The original difficulty lies in the 
fact, it seems to me, that our conception, and con- 
sequently our definition, of what constitutes a first- 
class tree is at variance with the truth. We con- 
ceive a first-class nursery tree to be one which grows 
straight and smooth, tall and stocky, whilst we know 
that very many — perhaps half — the varieties of apples 
and pears and plums will not grow that way. In 
order to make our conception true, we grow those 
varieties which will satisfy the definition, and, as a 
result, there is a constant tendency to eliminate 
from our lists some of the best and most profitable 
varieties. 

"All this could be remedied if people were to be 



2S2 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

taught that varieties of fruit trees may be just as 
different and distinct in habit of growth as they are 
in kind of fruit, and that a first-class tree is a well- 
grown specimen which has the characteristics of the 
variety. It seems to me that it is time for nursery- 
men to begin to enforce this conception upon the 
public. Why may not a catalogue explain that a 
tree may be first-class and yet be crooked and 
gnarly ? Why not place the emphasis upon health 
and vigor, and not upon mere shape and comeli- 
ness ? And why may not a nurseryman give a list 
of those varieties which are comely growers, and 
another list of those which are wayward growers?"* 

It is generally best to buy first-class trees, — 
those which are of medium size for their age, 
shapely in body and head, stocky, with straight, 
clean trunks and abundant roots, which are not 
stunted, and are free of borers and other injuries, 
and, in the case of budded trees, those in which 
the union is very near the ground ; and the tree 
should show the natural characteristics of the va- 
riety. In dwarf pears, especially, it is important that 
the stock, to be first-class, shall be budded . very 
low. It is often thought that large size is of itself 
a great merit in a nursery tree, but this is an 
error. Vigor, cleanness, stockiness, firm, hard 
growth, are much more important than bigness. 
The toughest and best trees are usually those of 
medium size. The very small extra expense which 

*"The Survival of the Unlike," p. 246. 



Age of Plants for Setting. 233 

one incurs in buying the best trees is a good in- 
vestment. In an acre of apple trees, the difference 
in cost of first-class over second-class trees will 
not be more than a dollar or two, but the differ- 
ence in results is often great. 

The age at which plants should be bought must 
be governed by circumstances and by variety. There 
is a general tendency to buy trees too old rather 
than too young. When varieties are new and 
scarce, it may be economy to buy young stock. 
Some of the freer -growing apples and pears are 
large enough when two years old, if grown from 
buds ; but these fruits are usually set at three 
years from the bud or graft. Dwarf pears may be 
set at two or three years, preferably at the former 
age. Quinces are set at two and three years. 
Peaches are set at one year from the bud. Strawber- 
ries are set only from new plants (that is, those which 
have not borne) ; gooseberries and currants prefera- 
bly from two-year stock, and raspberries and black- 
berries from stock not more than one season old. 

Dwarfs vs. standards. — Fruit-growers are always 
asking whether standard or dwarf trees are the 
better to plant, but the question is a personal 
one, and cannot be answered for another any more 
than the question can as to whether peaches are 
more desirable than plums. Dwarf apples and 
dwarf pears are of a different type of fruit-grow- 
ing from the standards, and the intending grower 
must weigh the evidence for and against as best 
he can. As a general thing, the standards are the 



234 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

safer and more reliable ; but persons who are will- 
ing and competent to give the extra care which 
the dwarfs need, and who have access to extra 
good markets, may generally grow the dwarfs with 
profit.* 

The parentage of the cion may affect its value. — 
"It is probable that many trees fail to bear because 
propagated from unproductive trees. We know that 
no two trees in any orchard are alike, either in the 
amount of fruit which they bear or in their vigor 
and habit of growth. Some are uniformly productive, 
and some are uniformly unproductive. We know, 
too, that cions or buds tend to reproduce the char- 
acters of the tree from which they are taken. A 
gardener would never think of taking cuttings from 
a rose bush, or chrysanthemum, or a carnation, 
which does not bear flowers. Why should a fruit- 
grower take cions from a tree which he knows to 
be unprofitable ? 

"The indiscriminate cutting of cions is too 
clumsy and inexact a practice for these days, when 
we are trying to introduce scientific methods into 
our farming. I am convinced that some trees can- 
not be made to bear by any amount of treatment. 
They are not the bearing kind. It is not every 
mare which will breed or every hen which will lay 
a hatfull of eggs. In my own practice, I am buy- 
ing the best nursery -grown stock of apples (mostly 

♦Further remarks upon dwarf trees may be found in Nursery Book, 3d 
ed., and in Lodeman's "Dwarf Apples," Bull. 116, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Raising Trees from Seeds. 235 

Spy), and am top -grafting them with cions from 
trees which please me and which I know to have 
been productive during many years. Time will dis- 
cover if the effort is worth the while, but unless 
all analogies fail, the outcome must be to my 
profit."* 

If one is to plant hardy stocks and then work 
them over, he should usually plan to graft or bud 
them after they have stood in the orchard one 
year. Good results sometimes follow grafting in the 
very year in which the stock is set, but this is the 
exception. Some persons have proposed to sow 
seeds in the very spot where the trees are to 
stand, and thereby to raise stocks for top -working 
without transplanting them, but the labor and un- 
certainty of the method make it impracticable. It 
is cheaper to grow trees in the nursery row — the 
same as it is cheaper to buy trees of a nursery- 
man than to attempt to grow them — and the trees 
also receive better care. Again, seedlings vary, and 
the poor and weak ones should be discarded the 
same as they are by the budder in the nursery 
row who finds them to be too small or too 
scrawnj' to bud. Well -grown stock of a strong- 
growing variety usually gives more uniform results 
than a lot of home-grown seedlings can. 

Buying the trees. — It is best, when it can be done, 
to order trees late in summer or early in the fall, if 



■*L. H. Bailey, Bull. 102, (Jornell Exp. Sta. See, also, "Survival of the 
Unlike," pp. 249, 250. 



236 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

one expects to plant an orchard. Buy where the best 
trees can be obtained, and where there is good reason 
to expect reliable stock and honest dealing. It is 
generally advisable to buy at the nearest nursery at 
which the desired stock can be secured, for the buyer 
has more personal knowledge of the nurseryman, he 
can visit the nursery, he saves freight, and he may 
be able to secure his stock in fresher condition ; but 
trees of equal excellence will generally thrive equally 
well when transported from long distances, if they 
arrive at their destination in good condition. While 
one should endeavor to secure low prices, it should be 
remembered that nursery stock should never be pur- 
chased simplj^ because it is cheap. Poor stock is 
dear as a gift. Yet farmers who annually plant a 
few trees, and who buy of agents, often pay exorbi- 
tant prices. In a certain town, when farmers were 
paying 28 cents apiece for peach trees in lots of a 
dozen, any reliable nursery would have been glad to 
have supplied the same varieties at $8 per hundred, 
at the nursery. Plums which should have sold for 15 
cents to 20 cents apiece were selling to farmers for 
50 and 60 cents apiece. The man who seriously ex- 
pects to plant an orchard for profit will not be led 
into any wild scheme or new varieties by agents. He 
will generally buy directly of the nearest nurseryman 
who can supply the desired stock and varieties at the 
prices which suit him. Some nurserymen employ reg- 
ular and reliable agents, and such agents carry a cer- 
tificate from the firm they represent. But while these 
salesnien may be perfectly straightforward, and may 



Substitution of VarifUfs. 237 

be the best channels through whom small orders can 
be secured by those who are uninformed in pomo- 
logical matters, all persons who expect to go into 
fruit-growing seriously should buy directly of the 
nurseries. But it must always be remembered that 
the tree agent has been the means of clothing the 
country with fruit trees, and of thereby adding much 
to the contentment of farm life. 

The buyer should make up his mind just what 
varieties he wants, and then find the nursery which 
has them, and order early enough to get them. 
There is then no occasion to consider the vexed ques- 
tion of substitution of varieties. If the varieties are 
not in market, buy stocks of some strong -growing, 
staple variety, and after these are established — usually 
the spring or summer of the next year — bud or graft 
over the tops to the desired varieties. 

. THE SETTING OF THE PLANTS. 

When to plant . — There is much difference of 
opinion as to the relative merits of fall and spring 
planting. The writer's opinion is that fall planting 
is generally preferable to spring planting upon thor- 
oughly drained soils, particularly for the hardy tree 
fruits, like apples, pears and plums ; and if the 
ground is in good condition and the stock well ma- 
tured, peaches can sometimes be set in October, even 
in the northern states, with success. The advantages 
of fall planting are several. The trees become estab- 
lished during the open weather of fall, and they usu- 



238 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

ally make a start in spring before the ground is hard 
enough to allow of spring planting. This early start 
not only means a better growth the first season, but, 
what is more important, trees which get a very earlj^ 
hold upon the soil endure the droughts of midsummer 
much better than trees planted in spring. Planting 
is nearly alwajs better done in the settled weather 
and workable soil of fall than in the capricious days 
and in the hurry of springtime ; and the orchardist 
is free to begin cultivation at a time when he 
would otherwise be planting his trees. Again, it is 
generally better to buy trees in the fall, when the 
stock of varieties is full and when the best trees 
are yet unsold : these trees must be kept until 
planting time, and it is about as cheap and fully 
as safe to plant them directly in the field as to heel 
them in until spring. 

{ In fall planting, however, it is important to insist 
that the trees shall be thoroughly well matured. In 
order to move stock quickly, it is the practice of 
some nurserymen to "strip" the trees before the 
growth is completed; that is, the leaves are stripped 
off, the growth stopped, and the trees are put upon 
the market for September deliveries. This process 
weakens the trees, and many failures in young plan- 
tations are probably attributable to this cause. Such 
trees may die outright, especially if set in the fall 
and a hard winter follows ; or they may live to 
make a dwindling growth for the first few years. 
Like early -weaned calves, they lack vitality and push. 
If one were setting an orchard in the fall, he should 



Buy in the Fall. 239 

place his order for trees in August or September, 
if possible, with the express stipulation that the 
trees should stand in the nursery rows until the 
leaves begin to die and fall. In the meantime, the 
land should be fitted and the holes dug, so that 
when the trees arrive they can go directly into their 
places without delay or without the expense of heel- 
ing them in. Trees are mature enough to dig late 
in September or early in October in the northern 
states, depending upon the season, soil and variety. 
When the tree is fully mature, some of the leaves 
will still hold upon the vigorous shoots, and these 
are stripped off; but this stripping does no harm, 
for the young growth is then mature and it has a 
thick, strong, brown appearance which is very dif- 
ferent from the slender, soft and green branches of 
early -stripped trees. 

It should be said that there seems to be a ten- 
dencj^ amongst nurserymen to urge fall planting in 
order to push sales ; and there are many good 
planters who consider fall planting hazardous, espe- 
cially in the north. It is true that unless the con-^ 
ditions are right, spring planting is the safer course; 
and farmers who have many fall crops to harvest 
will also probably find more time for tree setting 
in the spring. 

Distance apart. — Fruit plants are oftener set too 
close together than too far apart ; in fact, the latter 
error scarcely exists. Trees, especially, are wide 
feeders ; and the best results are obtained when 
each tree stands far enough from its neighbors to 



240 The Principlps of Fynii-ffroiviyig. 

allow it to possess an individuality all its own, 
An additional reason for sparse planting has lately 
become important, — the necessity of spraying for in- 
sect and fungous pests; and for this reason, as well 
as to allow of better cultivation, the outside rows 
should not be set close to fences. The distance at 
which trees may be set depends much upon the 
system of pruning. If heading -in is followed vigor- 
ously and systematicall3% trees may be set a third 
nearer than if allowed to take their natural form. 
Heading -in should always be practiced with dwarf 
pears, and many of our best growers pursue it with 
peaches, plums and quinces. Thin planting is the 
safer rule for the majority of cases. The following 
table maj^ be supposed to represent the outside aver- 
age limit for the planting of fruits in New York, when 
the plants are allowed to take their natural form : 



Apples, 


40 ft. each way 


— dwarf, 


10 to 15 ft. 


Pears, standard. 


20 to 25 ft. 


— dwarf. 


12 ft. to 1 rod. 


Quinces, 


1 rod. 


Peaches and Nectarines, 


20 ft. 


Plums, 


20 ft. 


Apricots, 


20 ft. 


Cherries, sour, 


20 ft. 


— sweet, 


30 ft. 


Figs, 


20 to 25 ft. 


Kaki, 


20 to 25 ft. 


Pecans, 


40 ft. 



Distance of Planting. 241 

Oranges and Lemons, 25 to 30 ft. 

Grapes, 6x8 to 8x10ft. 

Currants, 4x6 to 6x8 ft. 

Blackberries, 4x7 to 6x9 ft. 

Raspberries, 3x6 to 5x8 ft. 

Strawberries, 1x3 or 4 ft. [way. 

Cranberries, 1 or 2 ft. apart each 

These are safe distances. In certain cases, how- 
ever, where the soil is strong and the grower makes 
thorough work of cultivating, pruning and fertilizing, 
these distances can be reduced somewhat with profit, 
except, perhaps, in the case of apples. (See, also, 
remarks b}^ Van Deman, page 273.) 

The quincunx system plants in triangles rather than 
in squares. The triangles may be equilateral, in which 
case all distances are equal. Usually, however, a tfth 
tree is set in the center of a square; this system 
therefore requires twice the number of trees needed 
for ordinary planting, not counting the uneven ends. 

The mixing of species, or donMe j-jZaw^m^. — These 
remarks upon the proper distances for trees call 
for some discussion of the common question as to 
whether it is good policy to plant shorter -lived trees, 
as peaches, between apples and pears. It all depends 
upon the man. In general, it should be discouraged; 
but if the orchardist gives the very best attention to 
fertilizing and cultivating, plantations can be mixed 
with good results. This mixing of species is a per- 
sonal question. Now and ther a man succeeds ad- 
mirably with it, but the greater number fail to 

Q 



242 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

secure very good results with more than oue type of 
effort upon the same piece of land. 

Van Deman* writes the following upon this sub- 
ject: "For a number of years, the trees will neces- 
sarily have much more space than they really need, 
if planted the distance apart that they will require 
when grown to full bearing age. Not only will there 
be wide spaces between their tops, but much of the 
soil will be unoccupied by their roots. Therefore, 
some plan for using this space without in any way 
hindering the proper growth of the trees, is permis- 
sible, economical and desirable. Many plant peach 
trees among their apple trees to fill the spaces until 
the apple trees get old enough to need all the room. 
I have done so myself, but do not like it now. The 
peach trees are of quicker growth, and rob the apple 
trees to a damaging degree, in many cases. Dwarf 
pears are occasionally set in apple or standard pear 
orchards, but this is generally a mistake, because the 
trees often need very different culture, especially 
when the pear trees blight badly from too rapid 
growth. Moreover, if the dwarf pear trees are 
planted deep, they send out pear roots above the 
quince stocks, and become almost as long-lived as 
the other trees. The wiser plan is, usually, to plant 
apples, peaches, pears, cherries, plums, apricots, etc., 
by themselves, but to fill up the spaces until the 
permanent trees need the whole, plant varieties of 



*H. E. Van Deman, "Plans for Orchard Planting," Rural New-Yorker, 
March 6, 1S97. 



Double Planting. 243 

the same species that will come into bearing earlj. 

''Not only do different kinds of orchards fruits re- 
quire different distances between their trees, but the 
same species or the same variety often needs more or 
less space in different climates and soils. Despite all 
the manuring or cultivation we may give them, 
those planted in some localities will not attain the 
same size as they would had they been planted in 
others. For instance: the peach trees of Connecticut 
and northern Michigan are much smaller than those 
of Delaware and Missouri. No manner of treat- 
ment will cause them to grow to the same size, 
unless those in the more southern locality were cut 
back in summer time or starved, and thereby stunted. 
It is climate that does it — more warmth, more sun- 
light, and, in short, more congeniality. The apple 
trees of Michigan and New England are far larger 
than those of Texas and the tide -water sections of 
Virginia, because the apple delights in a climate 
both moist and cool. The gigantic cherry trees of 
the Shenandoah Valley far exceed in size those 
which grow in the richer lands of Illinois. 

"Where land is dear, economy of space is an 
important point ; hence the plan that will put the 
most trees on a given area, provided they are not 
too thick, is the best. The more there are on an 
acre, the less it costs per tree to cultivate them." 

Some of the small -fruits may be planted in or- 
chards with the very best results. Strawberries are 
practically an annual plant, and are much better for 
orchards than any kind of a sowed crop is. 



244 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

How to plant the stock. — Plow the land and fit it 
well. As all frnit grounds should be put into culti- 
vated crops for the first two years, at least, it will 
generally be found advisable to plow the entire area 
before the place is set, rather than to plow strips 
where the trees or plants are to go, for the land 
Clin then be shaped better with reference to surface 
drainage and general convenience. 

Trees should be set neither in dead -furrows nor 
on back -furrows. Level culture should generally be 
adopted from the start, unless it is known to be 
necessary to displace surface water ; and in that case 
it may be questioned if the land is fit for fruit 
plants. In all ordinary soils, holes must be dug 
b}^ hand for the tree fruits. Plowing out a deep 
furrow in the line of the rows may lessen the dig- 
ging and aid in getting the trees in line. The hole 
should be dug broad and ample : and the harder 
* the soil the larger ought the hole to be^for in 
that case the loose dirt which is filled in must give 
the tree its start. In loose and deep soils, the 
hole need T)e no larger than the spread of the 
roots. Chop up the soil in the bottom of the hole, 
or throw in a few shovelfuls of loose surface earth. 

Trees should be set an inch or two deeper than 
they stood in the nursery, for the loose earth will 
settle and wash away in the course of the season, 
even if it is well packed when the trees are set. 
Dwarf pears should be set from three to six inches 
below the bud. The roots are trimmed, as ex- 
plained further on. Every care must be exercised 



Setting the Plants. 245 

to get the soil thoroughly firmed in about the 
roots — which are straightened out in approximately 
their natural position — and especially under the crown 
or fork of the roots, in order that no air-spaces 
may be left to dry out. This dirt can be best placed 
by fingering it in, moving the tree gently up and 
down at the same time. Once or twice in the pro- 
gress of filling the hole, the earth should be stamped 
down. Fill the hole to a little more than level 
full to carry off surface water, but be careful that 
no hollows are left too close about the tree into 
which water can settle, especially when planting in 
the fall. Stamp or pound the earth very firmly 
about the tree before leaving it, for the double pur- 
pose of retaining moisture and of holding the tree 
against winds. Small stuff, like nursery stock and 
small -fruit plants, maj' often be well planted by 
means of a dibber or spud. All this operation of 
planting can proceed to perfection only when the 
earth is dry enough to crumble. Stock cannot be 
well planted in wet and sticky soil. 

If trees are set according to these directions, 
and the tops are cut back as explained farther on, 
there will rarely be any necessity for staking and 
tying the trees to keep them plumb. 

Mulches of straw or manure are sometimes ad- 
vised for newly set trees. For trees planted late iu 
spring and upon droughty soils, a light mulch about 
the tree may be advised ; but in other cases it is 
not. If mulches are applied to fall -planted trees, 
care must be taken to tramp them down well, or 



246 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

they may become a nesting -place for mice, which 
may girdle the trees when there are heavy snows. 
There are those who favor placing a forkful of ma- 
nure in the bottom of the hole, but this is a 
practice of doubtful value ; and, at all events, the 
manure should be well mixed with the soil to pre- 
vent drying out. There is often discussion as to 
whether it is desirable to place the mulch on the 
surface or to place it an inch or two below the 
surface and cover it with soil. No dogmatic as- 
sertion can be made for either method, although, 
of the two, the former is probably more generally 
advisable. But it should be remembered that a 
mulch of tilled earth (as explained in Chapter III.) 
is more desirable than one of straw or manure in 
general fruit -planting. 

Puddling the roots is a good practice when trees 
are to be shipped any distance or when they are 
likely to be unduly exposed, and it is a common 
practice amongst nurserymen. The operation con- 
sists in sousing the roots in a thin mud or paste 
of clay. 

Trimming the trees. '^ — There is much difference of 
opinion as to the best method of trimming trees 
when they are set. So far as the root is concerned, 
it is advisable, in the north, to cut away only those 
roots which are broken or badly torn. These should 
be cut off just back of the injury. It is the custom 



♦Complete discussions of pruning and training, with a full analysis of Iht 
Strinefellow or stub- root method, may be found in "The Pruning-Book." 



Trimming the Young Tree. 247 

to cut off the ends of all roots of the size of a lead 
pencil or larger, for a clean, smooth wound is sup- 
posed to heal quicker than a ragged one. These cuts 
are made from within outwards, so that the wound is 
more or less slanting across the roots, and so that it 
rests firmly upon the ground when the tree is set. 
When the tree is planted, all the roots should be 
straightened out to nearly or quite their normal posi- 
tion. If it is found that one or two roots run off to 
an inordinate length, they may be cut back to corre- 
spond somewhat with the main root system. 

Perhaps half the entire root system of the young 
tree is left in the ground when it is dug. It is there- 
fore evident that the top should be cut back to a cor- 
responding amount. In fact, the top should be more 
severely shortened -in than the root, because the root, 
in addition to being reduced, is also dislodged from 
the soil, with which it must establish a new union 
before it can resume the normal activities. Trees 
which are allowed to carry too much top when 
planted may fail to grow outright ; or if they start, 
they are very likely to be overtaken by the droughts 
of summer. Even if they live, the growth is gen- 
erally small and uncertain, and the tree may fall a 
prey to borers or a victim to high winds. On the 
other hand, trees may be trimmed too severely when 
^et. Except possibly in the case of peaches, it is 
probably unwise to trim the trees to a mere pole ; 
and with peaches, it may be better to leave spurs 
with at least one bud than to trim to a whip. There 
should be a number of strong, bright buds left upon 



248 



The Principles of F^ntit- growing. 



the top, for these are the points where early and 
active growth begins. These buds are upon strong 
branches. If they are removed, the weaker or half 




\ 





Fig. 23. Yearling peach tree. 



Fig. 24. Peach tree, pruned. 



dormant buds upon the main trunk or low down in 
the crotches, must take up the work, and these start 
slowly and often feebly. 



Trimming the' Young Plant. 249 

There are two general methods of trimming the 
tops of young trees at planting time. One method 
cuts back all the branches to spurs of from one to 
three buds ; or sometimes, particularly with dwarf 
pears set when two years old, the side branches may 
be cut entirely away, leaving only the buds on the 
main stem or trunk. The tree, therefore, "feathers 
out" the first season; that is, it makes many small 
shoots along the main trunk. The following fall or 
spring, the top is started at the desired height. 
Fig. 23 shows a peach tree as received from the 
nursery, and Fig. 24 the same tree, trimmed in this 
manner, ready for planting. This method is the one 
generally best adapted to the peach, which is always 
set when a year old ; but for other fruits, unless 
the trees are slender and without good, branchy tops, 
it is doubtful if it is the best practice. If the 
bodies are thought not to be stiff enough, this man- 
ner of trimming may be used to good advantage. 
The main shoot should usually be headed back in 
this as in all styles of trimming, in order to make 
the trunk stocky. 

The second method aims to start the top at the 
required height when the tree is planted. It is 
adapted only to strong and well grown stocks which 
have a more or less branching and forking top. 
From three to five of the best branches are left, 
and these are headed back to a few buds each. 
Fig. 25 shows a pear tree, trimmed in Fig. 26, and 
the illustration may be considered to represent a 
good example of its class. Many of our best plant- 



250 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



ers prefer the spur system for all trees, and there 
are some who would trim all newly set trees to a 







Fig. 25. Three year old pear tree. 



Fig. 26. Pear tree pruned. 



straight whip. There is much to be said for this lat- 
ter method. 






/ 




Fig. 27. Youii 

plum stock 
well trimmed. 




t'ig. 28. Second-chiss 

apple tree, showing: 

leader at A. 



29. Second-class 
fee, showing 
leader at A. 



252 



The Principles of Fruit -growing. 



It is, of course, evident that there 
is no one method of pruning young 
trees which is all wrong, nor any other 
which is all right. The method must 
always be modified by the age and 
shape of the trees, by the climate (or 
part of the country) in which the plan- 
tation is set, by the species of plants, 
and especially by the ideal which the 
grower has set for himself. In general, 
it may be said that the younger the 
stock the more nearly 
to a whip it may be 
pruned. 




Fig. 



Grape plant, showing where it should he pruned^ 



Trimming the Youny ISfock-. 



258 



It may be said iu general, then, that peach trees 
and small or slender trees should be well lieaded 
back and spurred (Figs. 
23, 24); but that strong, 
well branched trees may 
have the head started 
at the desired height 
at the time of setting, 
all the branches being 
well headed back (Figs. 
25 and 26). Fig. 27 
shows a small plum 
tree cut to spurs, and 
the roots have also been 
properly dressed. Figs. 
28 and 29 show second- 
class apple trees. In 
these the tops are not 
well formed, and it 
might be best to trim 
to a whip, allowing 
the branches A to be- 
come the leaders. Such 
whips may look very 
crooked and scrawny, 
but they will straighten 
as they grow. The lines 
in Fig. 30 show where 
a grape plant should be pruned. The top should 
be cut at a and b, the upper roots trimmed off at 
e and d, and the main roots cut in from e to /. 




Fig 'il. Pruning a aewiy-set tree. 



254 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

The trees may be trimmed before they are planted, 
although it is generally better to do it just after 
they are set, especially if the tree is trimmed after 
the method of Fig. 26, for one can then better esti- 
mate the proper height, the operation is easier done, 
and there is no further danger of breaking off the 
limbs by the handling of the tree. One foot is 
planted firmly at the base of the tree, and then with 
one hand the branch to be removed is bent upwards 
and with the other the knife is applied to the under 
side and the cut is made neatly and easily (Fig. 31, 
page 253). Never cut downwards on a limb, for a 
ragged wound nearly always follows. 

In fall -set trees it is generally inadvisable to 
prune them before spring (unless the tops are so 
heavy and the bodies so weak that they are likely 
to be injured \>y wind), because the cut surfaces 
are likely to dry out. The roots of the tree are 
not yet sufficiently established in the soil to supply 
the added evaporation which takes place from the 
wounds. If it seems to be desirable to trim the 
trees when they are set, they should be cut back 
only part way. They may be cut again, to fresh 
wood, in the spring. 

THE LAYING -OUT OF THE FRUIT PLANTATION. 

It is difficult to make the rows straight in large 
areas, especially on rolling ground. Persons who 
have had areas regularly surveyed with chain and 
compass, and a stake set for every tree, may have 



Making the Rows /Straight. 255 

found the orchards to be as crooked as others set 
with much less care. The survej^or sets his stakes 
by sighting across the field from certain fixed 
points ; but it is difficult for the planter, when the 
stake is removed and the hole dug, to stand the 
tree in the exact place of the stake. It is better 
to regard the trees as stakes and to set them by 
sighting. The area can be "run out" on two or 
three of the sides, a conspicuous stake being set at 
the location of each tree on these outside rows. If 
the field is large or rolling, it may be necessary to 
set one or two lines of stakes across the center of 
the field also. For areas of a few acres, a garden - 
line stretched across the field will be found to be 
a great help and to save much time. This line is 
moved at either end to the adjoining row, as soon 
as one row is set alongside it. Persons sometimes 
tie conspicuous strings on the line at the given 
intervals between the trees, expecting to set a tree 
at every knot, but with the stretching of the line, 
and other sources of error, it is nearly impossible 
to get the cross rows straight in this manner, and 
the trees must be kept in line by sighting. 

Upon comparatively level fields, especially if the 
land is in good tilth, the plantation may be laid 
out with a corn -marker. If the planter keeps his 
back to the row of trees and sights ahead to the 
marked line or furrow, he will get his rows straighter 
than he will if he sights by the trees. Two men 
are better than one when setting plants, for one 
usually attends to the sighting whilst the other 



256 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

puts in the plants. There are various devices for 
locating the position of the original stake, after the 
hole has been dug. One of the best consists sim- 
ply of a thin board three or four inches wide and 
six or seven feet long, with a notch at its center, 
and a stationary leg or pin at one end (a). The 
other end (b) is provided with a hole to receive the 
top of another stake or pin. The notch is set 
against the stake, the legs at each end of the board 
being thrust into the ground at the same time. 
The end (b) is now raised oif the pin or leg, and 
the board is swung around out of the range of 
the hole. When the hole is dug, the end (b) is 
swung back and dropped upon the pin, and the tree 
is set in the notch.* 

The methods of laying out orchards have been 
discussed in detail recently by H. E. Van Deman, 
formerly pomologist of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and copious quotations are 
made from these writings. t 

"To lay out with the plotv. — Before doing any- 
thing, one must decide which style or arrangement 
of the trees is to be followed and the distance apart 
to plant them. This having been decided, the first 
thing to be done is to establish a base line, which 
should be along a fence, road or some other perma- 
nent border of the tract to be planted. Prepare 



*The reader will find this implement and another one illustrated on page 56 oi 
" Garden-Making." 

tH. E. Van Deman, "Laying Out Orchards," Green's Fruit Grower, April. 
1897. 



Making the Bows Straight. 257 

enough small split stakes, that may be easily seen, 
to put at each end of every tree row ; that is, 
enough to go entirely around the tract. Then, set 
a stake firmly at a spot which shall be the first 
established corner of the outside limits of the 
orchard. It must, however, be set at a spot which 
shall also be the end of another line running exactly 
at right angles to the base line. In the west, 
where the farms are nearly all laid out in perfect 
squares or rectangles, the fields are apt to be rec- 
tangular. In the absence of a surveyor's transit, 
a carpenter's square may be used to establish the 
lines, by sighting along its edges when laid on the 
tops of three stakes at the corner. Set a stake at 
the farther end of each of these lines. From this 
first corner stake measure along the base line fifteen 
feet, or as far as it is thought best to have the 
width of the margin between the trees and the 
fence, and there set a stake. Next, measure along 
the base line from this second stake the distance 
that the trees will be apart, and set a stake. 
Measure along the entire length of the base line, 
setting a stake at every 16%, 20, 25, 33 feet, or 
whatever distance may have been decided upon. 
This line of stakes being only the ends of the 
transverse rows and not the places for trees, they 
need not be set absolutely in a straight line, but 
should be nearly so. Then, go back to the original 
corner stake and measure fifteen feet at right angles 
to the base line and set a stake, which determines 
the width of the border next the base line. Now, 



258 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

measure and set stakes along this other side of the 
orchard site, up to the stake at the farther end. 
The two remaining sides should be measured and 
staked in the same way. 

"Provide several tall stakes with a white rag tied 
at the top of each, to use as sight poles at each 
end. If one can run a straight line with a plow 
without intermediate sight poles, that is, with only 
one at each end, these will be enough ; but I have 
found that it pays I'o have an extra line of stakes 
set a few rods from each end, and a guide pole to 
be set at each in turn, as the laying -out pro- 
gresses. 

"We are now ready for the plow. Some like 
one horse, but two make the plow run steadier, and 
it is easier for the plovvman to sight between two 
horses than over the head of one. My plan is, to 
first mark out crosswise to the way I intend to 
plant, and to make but a single shallow furrow. 
This being done, we are ready to make the fur- 
rows in which to plant. If these run up and 
down the slope they will act as a drain to the 
trees, in some measure. By plowing two rounds 
and finishing with a dead -furrow or trench on the 
line, and then subsoiling in the bottom of it, there 
will be very little work for the spade in preparing 
to set the trees. It is by no means difiicult to 
set them in the checks, with a little sighting, so 
straight that no one would know but that they were 
set by a line. After setting the trees, hitch one 
horse to a plow with a very short singletree covered 



Making the Rows Straight. 259 

with rags at the ends to prevent injuring the trees, 
and fill up the trench at two rounds. Then plow 
the space between the rows. One thing must be very 
carefully figured out the very first thing, if the hex- 
agonal style is used (which I prefer and use), and 
that is, the distances between the rows at right 
angles, and not diagonally from tree to tree, and 
then accurately measured and staked on the outer 
lines. The great Wellhouse orchards, in Kansas, were 
laid out with the plow. J. H. Hale substituted a 
60 -cent per day darkey and a mule for a six -dollar 
surveyor and transit, in laying out his rows for 
planting his 600 -acre peach orchard in Georgia. 

^^ Laying out with a line. — For small orchards of an 
acre or two, I have often practiced a method of 
laying out in the hexagonal style, which is very 
quickly and easily done. As many stakes are pro- 
vided as there are trees to be set. A wire is pre- 
pared of the exact length that the trees are to be 
apart, and a ring or loop twisted in at each end, 
by which to hold it. A base line is established by 
setting stakes just where each tree will be in the first 
row. One person (A) slips a finger through one 
ring, and another (B) takes the other end of the 
wire and runs a small stick through the ring. A 
holds his end exactly at stake 1, and B steps to 
where he supposes the first tree of the second row 
will come, and with the point of his stick marks a 
small segment of a circle on the ground. He remains 
there while A goes to stake 2 and holds his end 
exactly to it. B describes another arc on the 



260 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

ground, and where it crosses the first one he sets a 
stake, and moves to the place for the next stake. 
There he makes a mark, and A then goes to stake 
3 of the base line and holds the wire as before, 
while B finds the crossing of the marks and sets 
another stake ; and so on to the end of the row. 
When the second row is complete it is used as a 
base line from which to make a third, etc., etc. If 
the work is done carefully the stakes will be found 
to be in very straight rows every way. I have 
tried it on some of the roughest hills in northern 
Michigan, where, in newly cleared places the stumps 
were very thick, and planted nice orchards that are 
now over twenty -five years old, that look to-day as 
if the trees might have been set by a compass and 
chain. On level ground, free from obstructions, it 
is fun to lay out an orchard so. 

^^ Another line method. — Another cheap and handy 
method is, to mark and set by a wire long enough 
to reach entirely across the field. It should be 
stretched tightly between two stout stakes that have 
been firmly driven into the ground, and exactly on 
the line of the first row to be planted. Directly 
over the place for the first tree or vine, wrap a 
small wire two or three times and twist the ends 
tightly, so it cannot slip. Measure along the wire 
to the next place and fasten another wire coil, and 
so on to the end. If these little coils were soldered 
fast they could not move. A little piece of bright 
cloth should be tied over them, that the places may 
be easily seen. Now, dig the holes and plant the 



staking Out an Orchard. 261 

first row while the wire is in place. Then move 
the wire and stakes to the second row and stretch 
as before, being very careful to have the first mark 
exactly where the first tree should be. Proceed to 
dig and plant as before. Move the wire to the third 
row, and so on throughout. This obviates all 
necessity for marking off upon the ground, except 
the distances between the rows and a starting point 
on each row. Some of the most accurately planted 
orchards and vineyards I have ever seen were planted 
by this method at the North Carolina Experiment 
Station at Southern Pines, and elsewhere in that 
region, and there I got the idea. It is entirely 
practical. The wire can be wound on a reel, and 
thus be easily moved about the farm or stored for 
further use." 

Staking methods. — There are so many methods of 
staking out an orchard, that it will interest the 
reader if one of the best of them is described. 
The Yeomans plan is as follows : * "In connection 
with the accompanying diagram, is explained an 
easy, simple and accurate way of marking out the 
ground and planting the trees without putting any 
stakes where trees are to be planted or removing 
any while planting. The stakes not only show 
where to dig the holes, but when the planting is 
to be done the same stakes indicate the precise 
place where the trees are to be placed, always sight- 
ing only by the stakes in setting, without any regard 

*T. G. Yeomans, Walworth, N. Y., Country Gentleman, Ixi. 288 (Apr. 9, 1896). 



262 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



to the trees planted. Thus all the stakes will be 
standing when the last tree is planted, showing the 
accuracy of the work done. 

"The outside line of the diagram represents the 



10, 

91. 



1 • 

I 

B 



NORTH 
P 



E 



10 



•6 

i w 



SOUTH 
Fig. 32. Diagram to illustrate the plautiug of an orchard. 

ground to be planted ; the dots are stakes, by means 
of which the location of each tree can readily be 
found without any measurements ; but none of them 
stand where trees are to be planted. The ground 
being properly prepared for one hundred trees, pro- 



staking Out the Ground. 263 

vide sixty lath as very suitable stakes — light, straight 
and of proper length — lay them on the ground or 
a board and whitewash on each side about a foot 
or more at one end, by which they can readily be 
seen at a distance and distinguished from any other 
stake or object. Let two men with a tape line start 
at the corner of the ground at D, and measure 
25 feet along the east side to 1 and then set a 
stake ; thence measure 40 feet to 2, setting a 
stake, and continue to 10, putting a stake every 
40 feet to C, setting all stakes as perpendicular as 
possible. 

"Then with ten stakes start at B and measure 
the same distance toward A, sticking a stake first at 
25 feet, and after that 40 feet, to correspond with 
those on the east side. And on the same plan and 
in the same manner, stick ten stakes 40 feet apart 
along the north and south bounds of the orchard, 
and entirely outside of where any trees are to be 
planted, being particular that no trees shall be 
planted nearer than 25 feet to the fences surround- 
ing the orchard, for the reason that when the trees 
become large, as much as 25 feet of space will be 
necessary to allow a spraying wagon and fixtures 
to pass in spraying the trees properly, and to place 
ladders about the trees for gathering the fruit. 

"The stakes being set around the orchard ground 
at proper distances, the tape line is no longer 
needed, as the cross intermediate rows of stakes are 
to be set by sight. Now let one man take ten of 
the white -top stakes and go about to E (at bottom 



264 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

of diagram, and another man go to the first stake 
north of D, and sight the man at E precisely 
where to stick a stake in line with the two stakes 
on opposite sides of the ground ; then move north- 
ward to 2, and stick a stake between 2 and 2; and 
thus continue from south to north and from east 
to west, through and not far from the middle of 
the field, being careful not to place either of these 
intermediate rows where a row of trees is to be 
planted. These rows need not be straight, but each 
stake must be in line with the corresponding stakes 
at the right and left. 

"With the stakes thus placed, a person moving 
anywhere about the ground to be planted can readily 
find, by looking in the direction of two stakes in 
two directions at right angles, precisely where a tree 
is to be planted. Thus, a person standing at either 
+ is at a point where a tree must stand, and at 
either of those points will see two stakes in a line 
with him in two directions at right angles ; and 
so of every point where a tree is to be planted. 
If men are to be employed to dig the holes who 
are not capable of setting a stake in line with two 
other stakes already standing (there are such men), 
let some one who can do so go through the field, 
and with point of stake or other thing, mark where 
the holes are to be dug. 

"With this arrangement no stakes are placed 
where the trees are to be planted. Any number of 
men can go on with the work of digging the holes 
and planting in any part of the orchard without 



Hexagonal or Quincunx Planting. 265 

reference to any other trees in any other part. 
The writer has planted about 150 acres of apple 
and 100 acres of peach orchard on this plan, and 
has furnished many parties brief descriptions of same 
for planting ; has planted rows 30 to 40 rods long 
of nice trees, so straight in line that a stake two 
inches in diameter set up in the row would hide 
every tree from view, looking from the end thereof." 
Orchard ^jZans. — Van Deman* writes fully upon 
the methods of constructing a plan of an orchard, 
as follows : 

"T/ie hexagonal, Van Deman plan. — The plan that will best 
economize space is what is known as the 'hexagonal' plan. It 
is a system of equilateral triangles, and is sometimes called the 
' triangular ' system. It puts all adjacent trees equally distant 
from each other. This is the plan I have followed in all my 
own plantings, and now think it the best I have ever seen. I 
have practiced upon the additional idea of planting temporary 
trees alternately with permanent ones, and leaving alleys be- 
tween every fifth and sixth row, which I have never seen in any 
other orchards of the hexagonal style ; therefore, I have called 
this part of it the ' Van Deman ' plan. In the lower part of 
Fig. 33 it may be seen. By this plan there may be planted 
156 trees per acre one rod apart, with every sixth row left out 
for an alley, which gives easy access to wagons for gathering 
fruit, and for any other necessity. The permanent trees are 
marked by the letter P throughout this and all the other plans. 
These trees are two rods, or 33 feet, apart, which, for apple trees 
in most climates and soils, is sufficient. In Michigan, Pennsyl- 
vania, New York and some other localities where apple trees 

*H. E. Van Deman, "Plans for Orchard Planting," Rural New-Yorker, 
March 6 and 13, 1897. Revised for this occasion by Mr. Van Deman. 

For tables giving the number of plants to the acre, see " The Horticultur- 
ists' Rule-Book." 4th ed., pp. 115-119. 



266 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

grow to very large size, 40 to 45 feet is none too far apart for 
permanent trees. The places for the temporary trees or, 'fillers,' 
are designated by the letter F. The fillers reduce the distance 
between trees to one rod, or 16X feet, except where the alleys 
occur, which are 28/^ feet wide. The fillers should be of early- 

( north) 



p 




P 


P 


P 




p 




P 


P 




P 1 


p 




P 


P 


P 




p 




P 


P 




i 
p i 




— 


F 


52 permanent trees 


, 33 feet apart. 






i 


p 


P 


F 




P 




P 


P 




1 


F 




P 


F 


P 




F 




P 


F 




P ! 


P 




F 


P 


F 




P 




F 


P 




1 

F 1 


F 




P 


F 


P 




F 




P 


F 




P 1 








104 trees 


16>2 


x283^ feet 


apart. 








P 


F 


F 


P 

F 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P 


F 
F 


P 


F 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P 


P 


F 


F 


P 

F 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


F 


F 


P 


F 
F 


P 


F 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P 


P 




F 


P 


F 




P 




F 


P 




F ' 


156 trees, 163^ X 


\Q% feet apart, after leaving out two rows for alleys. 



(SOUTH) 
Fig. 33. Hexagonal plan. 

bearing kinds, such as Wagener, Missouri or Wealthy, which 
will usually pay the cost of the entire orchard within the first 
ten years. In the middle section of Fig. 33 are 104 trees per 
acre, in which all the intermediate rows are left out, the fillers 
only equaling the permanent trees. These are preferably in 
the rows running north and south, that the trees may in some 



Orchard Plans. 267 

measure protect each other from the force of the prevailing 
southerly winds in the prairie states, especially ; and some 
think from the hot sun, also. This is one of ray favorite plans. 
It gives ample room to cultivate, and is just right for planting 
six rows of corn, which for the first five or six years is advis- 

{ NORTH ) 



P 




F 




V 


F 


P 




F P 


F 




P 




F 


V 


F 




P F 


P 




F 




P 


F 


P 




F P 


F 




P 




F 


P 


F 




P F 








92 trees. 33 


X 163^ feet apart. 






P 


F 


F 


F 


P 


F F 


P 


F 


F P 


F 


F 


P 


F 


F 


P F 


F 


F 


P F 


P 


F 


F 


F 


P 


F F 


P 


F 


F P 


143 trees 


163^ 


%. \Q% feet apart, leaving 


out two rows for alleys. 












SOUTH) 
















Fig. 34. 


Alternate plan. 







able. The upper section of the diagram shows only the perma- 
nent trees, of which there are 52 per acre. The rows are 28X 
feet wide three ways, and permit cultivating the trees accord- 
ingly. 

"The alternate plan.— ¥'\^. M shows the alternate plan, and 
is in all particulars like Fig. 33, except that the rows are fully 



268 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

33 feet apart, instead of 28% . The trees are to be planted alter- 
nately, just as bricks are laid in a wall. In the lower section 
there are 143 trees per acre; in the middle one 92, and in the 
upper, fully thinned section, there are 46 permanent trees. 

"T^e Wellhouse plan.— Almost every fruit-grower has heard 









(north) 








p 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


p 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


p 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 






49 permanent trees, 32 


feet apart. 






F 


F 




F 


F 


F 


F 


P 


P 




P 


P 


P 


P 


F 


F 




F 


F 


F 


F 


P 


P 




P 


P 


P 


P 


F 


F 




F 


F 


F 


F 


P 


P 




P 


P 


P 


P 


F 


F 




F 


F 


F 


F 


P 


P 




P 


I' 


P 


P 






98 trees, 


32 X 16 feet apart. 







(SOUTH) 
Fig. 35. Wellhouse plan. 

of Hon. F. Wellhouse, of Kansas, who is called 'The Apple 
King of America.' Well may he be so called, for he and 
his son, who is in company with him, have over 1,600 acres 
of apple orchard, ranging from two to twenty -two years 
planted. His trees are planted 32x16 feet apart, in rectan- 
gular style, as shown in the lower section of Fig. 35, the 



Plans for Orchards. 269 

wide spaces running north and south ; this makes 98 trees 
per acre. The upper section shows the permanent trees in 
exact squares 32 feet each way, as is now the case in his 
older orchards that have been thinned, 49 trees standing on 
an acre. He has not mixed the varieties, as is indicated in 

(north.) 



p 




p 




P P 
P 




P 




p 


p 








P P 

32 trees, 42 feet apart. 








P 


p 




p 




P P P 




P 




P 


p 




p 




P P P 
63 trees, 32x20 feet apart. 




P 




P 


p 


F 


p 


F 


P P F P F 


P 




P 


F 


p 


F 


p 


F 


P P F P F 


P 




P 


F 1 


p 


F 


p 


F 


P P F P F 


P 




P 


F j 


p 


F 


p 


F 


P P F P F 


P 




P 


F i 


108 trees, 


16 X 


20 feet apart, leaving out 2 


rows 


for alleys 


i 



(SOUTH.) 
Fig. 36. Parker Earle plan. 

the illustration, so far as I know, but planted such varieties 
in solid blocks as would bear reasonably early ; but it would 
seem to me that, if such kinds as Missouri were planted in 
rows between the others and to be removed, it would be better 
than planting each by itself. But, aside from his published 
statements of the results of his enterprise, I know, from a long 



270 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

and intimate acquaintance with Judge Wellhouse and his or- 
chards, that they have done remarkably well. 

"Tfee ParJcer Earle plan.— ^he plan originated by Parker 
Earle, who is one of the leading western horticulturists, is 
shown at Fig. 36. He has planted several hundred acres of 
apples after this plan in the famous Peeos Valley of New 
Mexico, where the trees come into bearing very early. They 
are 16 feet apart east and west by 20 feet north and south, 
except that every sixth row is left out for an alley, as in 
the lower section of the diagram. There are 108 trees per 
acre. The intention is to cut out every other north and 
south row, thus leaving them as shown in the middle sec- 
tion, 32x20 feet. There will then be 63 trees per acre. 
One -half of these may be taken out later, if more space be 
needed, leaving at the rate of 32 trees per acre, 42 feet 
apart. This will give ample space when the trees get to be 
very large; but in that climate, and northward to Colorado, 
Utah and Idaho, the trees are so precocious, and bear so 
abundantly, that it is doubtful whether they will ever attain 
size to need so much space. 

"T/ie Olden x>lan. — Who has not heard of the famous Olden 
Fruit Farm, in southern Missouri ? I made three prolonged 
visits there to see it at different times of the year, and it 
is well worth seeing. The oldest parts of the apple orchards 
are just at good bearing age. It is planted mostly to apples 
and peaches, but there are a few pears, plums and small 
fruits. Each year more are added; last year 960 acres were 
planted. J. C. Evans and L. A. Goodman are the leading 
spirits of the company that owns and runs it. Their plan 
for apples is 25x25 feet, in plain squares, and all of one 
variety in a block, making 64 trees per acre, as in the lower 
section of Fig. 37. The trees have not come to the age 
that requires thinning by the ax, but they will do so in 
time, for apple trees grow to a very large size in that rich 
soil and agreeable climate. When it does come, they will 
take out every other diagonal row, leaving 32 trees per acre, 
37X feet apart the nearest way (diagonally), and 50 feet east 



Plans of Orchards. 



271 



and west, as in the upper section. While it may seem pre- 
sumptuous for me to suggest an improvement on a plan so 
well matured, and by such eminently practical orchardists, and, 
when it is true that the apple bears quite young and pro- 
fusely in all that Ozark Mountain region, yet it does seem 



(north.) 





P 


P 


P 


P 


p 




P 


P P 


i 






32 permanent trees, 37}^ feet apart. 




F 


P 


F P 


F P F 


P 


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P F 


P F P 


F i 


F 


P 


F P 


F P K 


^ 




Modified Olden plan : 


64 trees, 25 x 2.5 feet apart. 




P 


P 


P P 


P P P 


P 


P 


P 


P P 


P P P 


P 1 


P 


P 


P P 


P P P 


P 




Olden plan proper : 


64 trees, 25x 25 feet apart. 





( SOUTH. ^ 
Fig. 37. Olden plan. 



to me that it might be well to mix the varieties in the 
row, filling in each alternate diagonal row with the earliest- 
bearing varieties to be planted, and thus preparing for their 
removal and the retention of those of a less precocious and 
more durable character. This modified plan I have depicted 
in the central section of Fig. 37. 



272 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

"^^ Olden and Hale plans for peach orchards. — The Olden plan 
for a peach orchard is, to have the trees 16/^ x 16X fe©* 
apart each way, and in plain squares, making 169 trees per 
acre, as in the lower section of Fig. 38. At convenient dis- 
tances for the passage of wagons, roads are laid out, making 

(north.) 






o 























o 


o 





























O 


o 














o 











O 











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Hale plan : 


289 trees per acre, 


13 X 13 feet apar 


. 










































o 1 
































































o 



















1 








































! 
























































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1 


Olden p 


Ian : 169 trees per ac« 


5, 163^ xl6K feet apart. 





(SOUTH.) 

Fig. 38. Hale and Olden plans for peach orchard. 

a series of large blocks. The contour of the ground and 
intervening rocky hillsides or oak forests left standing, 
do not always permit these blocks to be of regular size or 
shape. 

"Then, we have the great Hale peach orchards in Georgia 
and Connecticut, and who has not heard of them and of 



Plans for Peach Orchards. 278 

their stirring Yankee proprietor, J. H. Hale, of Connecticut f 
He plants 13 x 13 feet, which seems extremely close, even for 
peach trees in Connecticut. As I walked through them with 
Mr. Hale, I repeatedly expressed such an idea, but he refuted 
it as often, gave favorable statements from experience, «nd 
then he would say, ^ There are the trees; do they not lOok 
thrifty enough ? ' And I could not say but that they did. 
But he feeds them like a lot of pigs in a pen. He prunes 
them back to bearing, paying and convenient size. He is 
not growing peach trees for fuel simply; although they will 
go into the wood and brush piles whenever their day of 
usefulness is over, and others be planted in their stead. 
Streets are laid out both ways through his Georgia orchard 
of 600 acres, cutting it into regular blocks 1,000x500 feet in 
size. There are 289 trees per acre, as may be seen in the 
upper part of Fig. 38. 

"The Delaware and Maryland peach orchards are set wider 
than those already mentioned. The trees grow to large size, 
and utilize the 16 to 20 feet space given them. The Michi- 
gan peach orchards are set somewhat closer, and those of 
the northern part of the peach belt along the lake are de- 
cidedly so. I have visited all of these sections and exam- 
ined the orchards, finding the square or hexagonal styles the 
most popular. In Texas and California I saw large, thrifty 
peach trees that needed as much space as any, and planted 
in the most exact manner, usually in squares or hexagons, at 
from 18 to 24 feet apart. 

"The pear, cherry, plum and prune (some plums are called 
prunes, especially in the Pacific states), taking the country 
over, are all subject to the same conditions and variations 
of climates and soil as the apple and peach, and, like them, 
they can properly be planted in any of these styles men- 
tioned, the distances being changed to suit each. The pear, 
being an upright grower, as a rule, does not need so much 
room as the apple; 20 feet apart is a common distance to 
plant standards, and 10 to 12 feet for dwarfs. The Kieffer, 
Le Conte and Garber bear very early as standards, and may 



274 



The Principles of Fruit -yrowiny. 



be planted about 16 feet apart, and thinned out as they 
crowd each other. 

"The sour cherries need about 18 to 20 feet, while the 
larger -growing sweet varieties require fully 20 feet, and in 
time, if they are not pruned back severely, 40 or more feet 
when they attain their full size. Plum orchards should vary 



APPLE TREE 




9 Ft. 6 Ft. 6 Ft. 9 Ft. 

Fig. 39. Setting small-fruits in an orchard. 



somewhat in closeness with the varieties planted. The great 
prune orchards of the Pacific slope are set with about 20 
feet between the trees. The orchards of our native species 
require about the same room ; but the Japanese class is 
usually more upright in growth, and may be planted a little 
closer." 



The Home Fruit Garden. ' 



275 



Hiitt describes* the following method of planting 
small -fruits in an orchard: "The bushes were ar- 



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Pig. 40. Siiggestion for a fruit garden of one ar-re. 

ranged so that cultivation may be given both wa>s 
with a minimum amount of hand hoeing. The ac- 



*Twenty-seeond Ann. Rep. Ontario Agr. College, 84 (1897). 



276 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

company ing plan (Fig. 39) shows the arrangement 
of the trees and bushes. The trees are planted on 
the hexagonal plan, the rows being 30 feet apart 
and the trees 35 feet apart in the row^s, the trees 
in one row alternating with those in the next. By 
this method of arrangement, 15 per cent more trees 
can be planted to the acre than by the ordinary 
method, and yet not be any more crowded. The 
bushes are 6 feet apart one way by 5 feet 10 inches 
the other. At present no trees are nearer than 9 feet to 
the apple trees. As the trees increase in size, those 
bushes within the circles, as shown on the plan, will 
be the first to be removed." 

The family fruit plantation. — It is impossible to 
give any specific advice for the plan of a family fruit 
garden, because tastes are so personal, and the 
amount and character of land at the disposal of the 
party are so various. One can only say that the 
varieties should be chosen for best dessert and culi- 
nary qualities, for succession through the season, and 
that the area should be so planted that the rows run 
the long way of the land and to allow of easy cul- 
tivation with a horse. In general, it will not be 
necessary to provide for cultivation both ways. The 
accompanying diagram (Fig. 40) suggests how an 
area of one acre may be laid out in a fruit garden 
for the home supply. For a number of years, other 
plants — as vegetables, small -fruits, or dwarf apples 
or dwarf pears — may be grown, not only between 
the rows, but between the trees in the row. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SECONDARY AND INCIDENTAL CARE OF THE 
FRUIT PLANTATION. 

The methods of tilling the fruit plantation have 
been fully considered in Chapter III., but since the 
subject is so important and so commonly misunder- 
stood, it may be well to repeat two or three of the 
advisory suggestions at this place. There are many 
persons who fully believe that clean tillage is the 
proper treatment for an orchard, but who are de- 
barred from putting the matter into practice because 
of the great amount of labor which they conceive to 
attach to it. As commonly practiced, it is certainly 
true that the tilling of orchards is one of the most 
laborious duties of the farm, but this is because the 
accustomed methods are wrong or bungling. The 
orchardist rarely has the land fully under his control. 
The essence of the whole matter is to get the land 
in ideal condition whilst the orchard is young, and 
then to practice surface tillage (with only occasional 
plowings) after the trees begin to bear. The use of 
modern implements makes it easy to keep the land 
clean without resorting to the high trunks of the 
old-time orchards. If the roots are made to strike 
deep into the land by deep plowing for the first 

(277) 



278 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

few years, it may not be necessary to turn any 
furrows in the plantation in later years, except to 
turn under cover crops. 

All this can be done even with hard clay land. 
The writer has the management of two orchards 
upon very hard clay of uneven surface, which, in six 
years from the setting of the trees, is in such con- 
dition that deep plowing is no longer necessary, and 
the spring fitting of the land is done with spading 
harrows and spring -tooth harrows, and the subse- 
quent tilling is partly done with a spike -tooth har- 
row. Weeds are not allowed to appear ; but if a 
patch should get a start now and then, it can gen- 
erally be destroyed with the cultivator. Perhaps 
once or twice during the season it will be necessary 
to send a man through the orchard with a hoe to 
take the weeds away from the trees, but the space 
which needs such hand labor will not exceed two 
feet in diameter, and it is usually very much less. 
This has been accomplished by exercising great care 
to plow the clay when it is in such condition that 
it pulverizes when it is worked, and by the incor- 
poration of one or two cover crops. It will be 
necessary now and then to put cover crops on the 
land for the purpose of adding humus, and the land 
will then be regularly plowed in spring to turn the 
crop under ; but even then it may not be the de- 
sire to secure a heavy growth of cover crop, and 
the spring plowing need not necessarily be deep and 
laborious. If, however, it seems to be necessary to 
plow six or eight inches deep, there will be no 



Root -pruning , 279 

hesitation in doing so, for the roots are deep enough 
to escape the plow if the plowman is ordinarily 
careful about the trees. 

It is not necessarily a misfortune to cut the 
smaller roots of plants with the plow, providing 
only a few are cut in any year. In other words, 
it is no doubt safer to sever a good many roots a 




Fig. 41. A broken grape root sending out branches. 



half inch, or sometimes even an inch, in diameter, 
than not to plow the orchard at all. The severed 
roots generally send out numerous branches near 
their ends, and these branches increase the forag- 
ing power of the root in soil which is normally laid 
under small tribute. Figs. 41 and 42 are drawn 
from actual specimens of roots which were broken 
by the plow. It would seem as if the absorbing 



280 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

area of the root had been actually increased, for the 
many small roots certainly present more surface than 
the main shaft of the root did. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that the real surface of the original 
root extended far beyond the present point, and 
there is no way of telling if the adventitious roots 
actually present more surface than the whole of the 
original root did. But it is probable that an occa- 




Fig. 42. Showing the numerous adventitious branches of a broken apple root. 



sional light root -pruning may do more good than 
harm in some cases. 

The particular methods of caring for plantations 
of small -fruits can scarcely be discussed in a gen- 
eral work on fruit-growing, but in general it may 
be said that a deep cultivation with a spring -tooth 
cultivator (No. 9, Fig. 13, page 147) is usually suffi- 
cient for breaking up the ground in spring amongst 
bush -fruits, if the land is clean and in good con- 



study of Soil and Climate. 281 

dition. If the land is soddy or infested with bad 
weeds, however, a regular plowing may be necessary. 
A handy plow for such plantations is one of the 
type shown in Fig. 16, page 158, managed by a 
single horse. The management of the land in 
small -fruit plantations does not differ in principle 
from the management of orchard lands, and the 
tools are of the same general kind, except smaller 
and generally adapted to a single horse. If the 
rows are far enough apart, however — as they usually 
are in blackberries and black raspberries — it may 
be necessary in hard lands to hitch two horses to 
such a tool as the spring -tooth cultivator. 

It is scarcely necessary to repeat that it is essen- 
tial to give the fruit plantation just as good tillage 
as the corn receives, if equally good results are 
desired. Wholly aside from the direct benefits of 
tillage (which have already been explained), the 
operation is necessary in order to supply the enor- 
mous quantities of moisture which are exhaled from 
the leaves of the plants. Professor Burrill, of the 
University of Illinois, estimates* that a good -sized 
apple tree, having 25,000 square feet of evaporating 
surface, which is not a large estimate, will give off 
31,200 ounces of water per day in the hot season, 
or say 250 gallons. 

It is generally a matter of a few years to thor- 
oughly learn one's soil and climate, after moving 
onto a new farm. The farmer has a local and per- 

* Trans. 111. Hort. Soe. 



282 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

sonal problem to apprehend and to solve. He should 
not be discouraged, therefore, if he does not secure 
the desired results from the treatment of his land 
within the first two or three years. 

THE GENERAL CARE OF THE PLANTS. 

Staking young trees. — If fruit trees are stocky 
and well planted, and if the land is deep and in 
good condition, it will rarely be necessary to stake 
them. The staking of an orchard is generally an 
indication of poor trees or poor management at 
some point. It occasionally happens, however, that 
trees must be staked to enable them to overcome 
some accident or injury, as breaking by heavy 
winds, or ice, or other means. When it is neces- 
sary to stake trees, it is ordinarily preferable to drive 
a stout stake upon two sides and then to bind the 
tree firmly to each of these stakes, in order to keep 
it from whipping. The best bandage is one of 
burlaps or other strong, soft cloth, cut in strips two 
or three inches wide and firmly tied about the tree. 
Just as soon as the tree has recovered from its 
injury or weakness, the support should be removed. 
Trees which have blown over, but which have not 
been broken completely off, may be severely headed- 
in and tied up in this manner, often with the very 
best results. The wounded and broken surfaces 
should be thoroughly covered with some antiseptic 
wash or paint. 

Sun -scald. — It is often necessary, especially ii^ 



Shading the Trunk. 



283 



the hot plains regions, to shade the trunks of 
young trees in order to prevent sun -scald. In the 
nursery rows, the bodies of the trees are ordinarily 
well shaded. There are 



.« 

V"^^ 



':M.:,# 



^^ 



various means of provid- 
ing this shade, but the 
best results may be ex- 
pected to follow from 
some protection which t 
simply breaks the force 
of the sun and does not 
entirely obstruct it ; for 
in the latter case, the ^$^ 
bark does not so read- 
ily become inured to 
exposure to sunshine. 
Finely woven wire net- 
ting rolled around the 
tree (in more than one 
thickness, if necessary), is 
said to afford very good 
protection for this pur- 
pose, as shown in Fig. 
43 (but preferably ex- 
tending higher up the 
trunk). The upper part 
of the trunk is likely to be shaded sufficiently 
by the branches of the tree, although this is not 
always the case. These rolls of wire netting also 
serve a purpose in keeping away mice and other 
vermin. 




Fig. 43. Tree protected by a roll of 
netting. 



284 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Hansen* writes as follows upon this subject for 
Dakota conditions: "Sun -scald causes great loss in 
northwest prairie orchards. By sun -scald is meant 
the alternate thawing and freezing of the stem on 
the southwest side in late winter, causing the bark 
to die and decay. Oftentimes the dead, blackened 
bark separates entirely from the stem. Orchardists 
now generally recognize the cause of the trouble, and 
prevent it by shading the stem in some way. Trees 
planted and kept with stem leaning toward the 
southwest until the branches shade the trunk, are 
free from it. Some fruit-growers set a board, or 
two boards nailed together trough -fashion, on the 
southwest side ; others use corn stalks, wire netting, 
or lath. Low -headed trees are best for severe lo- 
cations ; in more favorable sections trees may be 
headed two -and- a- half to three feet high. Tall 
trunks suffer more from sun -scald and severe 
winds." 

Trees are apt to suffer with sun -scald after a 
heavy pruning, especially if they have been allowed 
to grow too thick in the first place. Cutting out 
heavily from the center of the tree exposes the 
oblique and horizontal limbs to the intense heat of the 
sun, and the bark is likely to blister and be killed, 
after which borers are very apt to finish the work 
of destruction. In all interior hot regions, there- 
fore, it is well to exercise caution in the pruning 
of the tops of trees. It is better to keep the top 

*N. E. Hansen, "Fruit Culture," Bull. 50, S. Dak. Exp. Sta., 1897. 



Washing the Trees. 285 

somewhat thin and open from the start, rather than 
to allow it to become overgrown and then to make 
a sudden and radical correction of the difficulty. 

Bark -bound trees. — When a tree has been allowed 
to become stunted for two or three or more years, 
it is likely to become hide -bound, so that growth is 
impeded, even though the care of the plantation be 
corrected. The bark becomes very thick and dense 
and tight, and is likely to be dull and lifeless in color 
and sometimes moss -covered. The newer and fresher 
parts of the tree are likely to show a tendency to 
overgrow the lower parts which are hide -bound. In 
all such cases, the bark should be softened so as to 
allow the trunk to expand. In general, the best 
means of loosening up the bark is to scrape off the 
outer hard layer, if it should become mossy or en- 
tirely dead, and then to wash the tree thoroughly 
with some soapy compound. This washing should be 
done with a broom, or preferably with a strong scrub- 
bing brush, so that the body may be vigorously 
scrubbed. A wash of strong soapsuds is very good. 
Tar soap, whale-oil soap or carbolic soap are also 
very useful for the purpose.* These washes have the 
effect of softening the bark and allowing the tree to 
grow more readily. The effect of a good wash upon 
orchard trees is often exceedingly marked. It is 
sometimes thought by orchardists that the potash in 
these washes is absorbed through the bark, and 
thereby stimulates the tree. It is probable that it 

*The reader may find various recipes for washes in "The Horticulturist'* 
Rule-Book." 



286 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

eventually becomes plant -food by being washed off 
onto the soil, though the chief value of the wash is 
no doubt the softening and loosening effect which it 
has on the bark. 

Another means of releasing the pressure upon 
hide -bound trees is to slit the bark the entire length 
of the trunk or hide -bound portion. This is done 
by simply thrusting the point of a knife through the 
bark until it strikes the wood, and then drawing the 
blade down the entire length of the portion to be 
treated. When the knife is withdrawn, the slit is 
scarcely visible ; but after a time the slit widens, 
as the tree begins to expand. This method is to be 
advised only as an extreme resort, for it is better to 
keep the bark fresh and elastic by good tillage and 
by the use of washes ; but the slitting is of no 
damage to the tree, as a rule. The washing also has 
the additional advantage of killing ^^arious insects 
and their eggs which may be in or about the bark. 
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture wil] kill the lichen 
or "moss" on the trunks. 

Scraping trees. — The outer layers of bark of any 
tree gradually die and peel off, as the tissue grows 
upon the inside. This old, rough bark is of no 
direct use to the plant, but it probablj' affords some 
protection to the tender tissues within. It also af- 
fords a lodgment for insects and fungi. Trees which 
are kept in a good condition of growth and which 
are watched carefully, will need very little attention 
in the removing of the bark, but if the shaggy bark 
accumulates to any great extent, it is well to scrape 




Scraping Trees. 287 

it off. The operation should be done when the warm 
weather approaches in spring, or, in fact, at almost 
any time in the growing season. A good tool for 
this purpose is an old and thin hoe, the handle of 
which is cut down to about two feet in length. 
This tool is grasped lightly in the hand and is 
raked up and down the tree, and it removes the 
rough bark with ease. The very best tool for the 
purpose, however, is that shown in Fig. 44, which is a 
steel plate with sharp, 
ground edges, fas- 
tened securely to a 
bent shank. This 
tool can be had of 

hardware dealers, to ^,^ ,^ Scraper for cleaning and 

whom it is known repairing trees. 

as a box -scraper. 

Aside from removing the loose bark from the 
trunks of trees, this tool is very useful in cutting 
out and removing all diseased spots upon the bodies 
or in the crotches. The wounds resulting from the 
barking of trees may be trimmed down to fresh 
tissue by such a tool, and all spots injured by 
bark borers, spots of pear -blight, patches of canker, 
and the like, may be cut away, and the wounded 
surfaces are thereafter . covered with Bordeaux mix- 
ture or paint. In the scraping of trees, it is al- 
ways advisable to take away every particle of 
wounded and diseased tissue, unless it extends deep 
into the wood. When the object is to simply take 
away the rough and loose bark, the tree should not 



288 



The Principles of Fruit-growing, 




Fig. 45. A young trunk girdled 
by a label wire. 



be scraped down to the quick • 
that is, only the loose ex- 
terior portion should be re 
moved. 

Girdled trees, and gird- 
ling. — Trees which are girdled 
should have the injured parts 
pared down to live tissue and 
the wounded surface then 
covered with an antiseptic 
dressing. It is also advis- 
able to bind up the girdle 
with some material like 
grafting -wax, which will 
keep the wood moist and 
thereby allow the ascent 
of the sap ; for the sap 
rises in the tree through 
the young, soft wood, and not 
between the wood and the bark. 
The bark is formed over the 
wound by the sap which is re- 
distributed through the tree after 
it has been elaborated in the 
leaves ; that is, the reparative 
tissue is formed by elaborated 
sap which is on its downward 
course. If the woody tissue 
is kept soft and fresh, the tree 
may continue to live for years, 
but there will be a deposition 



Repairing Girdled Trees. 289 

of woody matter above the girdle, whilst the por- 
tion below will not increase in diameter. This 
is well known to all observing fruit-growers. 
Fig. 45 shows a deposit of woody matter above a 
girdle caused by a label wire. After awhile the 
younger wood is apt to become hard and dry, pre- 
venting the upward passage of nourishment taken in 
by the roots, and the tree then starves to death ; or, 
as in the case of the young tree shown in Fig. 45, 
the top maj^ become so heavy that the plant breaks 
off at the point of constriction. It is, therefore, 
evident that it is very necessary that the orchardist 
give careful attention to his label wires, to prevent 
them from doing great injury. It is always best 
to take the labels from young trees when they are 
set, and to depend upon a map record for the names 
of the varieties. Or, if the label is left upon the 
tree, it is best to hang it upon one of the minor 
limbs, rather than upon the trunk. In adjusting the 
label wire to the tree, it is important that only the 
ends of the wire be twisted together, allowing thereby 
a large loop in which the limb may expand. The 
label may be held tightly to the limb by simply 
pinching the wires together with the fingers. 

Trees which are freshly girdled in the growing 
time of spring may be expected to heal over before 
the season is over, if the girdled zone is not more 
than four or five inches wide, and if the surface 
of the wood, as already explained, is kept perfectly 
fresh. It is generally best, however, if no connec- 
tion of bark remains, to bridge over the girdle by 



290 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

cions. These cions are of the same kind as those 
which are used for ordinary grafting. The edges 
of the girdle are pared down to fresh wood, and 
the cions are cut two or three inches longer than 
the width of the girdle. They are whittled to a 
wedge shape upon either end, and these ends are 
inserted between the bark and the wood upon the 
upper and lower sides of the girdle. They should 
be so numerous as to almost touch each other en- 
tirely around the tree. After they are inserted, a 
strip of cloth should be bound tightly upon the 
bark over their ends, and the whole girdle should 
then be waxed over. It is a good plan to pour 
melted wax over the work, allowing it to run in 
between the cions and cover the edges of the bark 
and the exposed surface of wood. 

The congestion of the parts of the plant im- 
mediately above the girdle shows that those parts 
are overfed ; that is, they receive nutriment at the 
expense of the portions below the girdle. It would 
seem, therefore, that girdling might be made to in- 
crease the size and hasten the maturity of fruit 
which is borne beyond the girdle ; and such is 
known to be the case. The girdling of grapes is 
a common practice in some regions. The girdled 
portions are entirely removed in the next annual 
pruning, and enough of the growing portion is left 
below the girdle to maintain the roots and trunk. 
It will be seen, therefore, that the liability of in- 
jury to the vine is all a question of how much is 
left below the girdle and how much above it. 



Oirdling of Trees. 291 

Careful vineyardists are able to continue the prac- 
tice year after year without apparent injury to the 
vine. The girdling is done when the grapes are 
about the size of peas, and a section of bark about 
an inch wide is entirely removed from the cane. A 
gain in earliness of a week to ten days may be 
secured by the process, but it is commonly believed 
that the quality of the better grapes is injured. As 
a matter of practice, only the very earliest varieties 
of grapes are girdled or ringed for commercial pur- 
poses ; and it is doubtful if the practice is to be 
commended. 

Apples and other fruit trees are sometimes ringed 
to set them into bearing. "Many orchards develop 
a habit of redundant wood -bearing, and these are 
often thrown into fruiting by some check to the 
trees, as seeding down, girdling, and the like. 
Probably every orchardist has observed that the at- 
tacks of borers sometimes cause trees to bear. It 
is an old maxim that checking growth induces fruit- 
fulness. This is the explanation of the fact that 
driving nails into plum and peach trees sometimes 
sets the trees to bearing, and also of the similar in- 
fluence exerted by a label wire which has cut into the 
bark, or of a partial break in a branch. Girdling or 
ringing to set trees into bearing is an old and well- 
known practice. It is not to be advised as a general 
resort, but I should not hesitate to employ it upon 
one or two of the minor branches of an unprofitable 
tree for the purpose of determining if the tree needs 
a check. I saw a Baldwin tree this vear in which 



292 The Friw-ipUs of FraU'ijnuvinii. 

two large limbs had been girdled last year, and these 
limbs were bending with frnit whilst the remaining 
branches and the adjacent trees were barren. Gir- 
dling may generally be done, with safety in spring, 
when the leaves are putting out. A ring of bark two 
or three inches wide may be removed clear to the 
wood, and entirely encircling the limb. I have heard 
of excellent results following the simple ringing of 
trees, which consists in severing the bark — but remov- 
ing none of it — completely around the tree with a 
sharp knife, in spring. These are, of course, only 
incidental . operations, to be employed with caution, 
and then only upon branches of less importance. 
Their value is wholly one of experiment, to aid the 
owner in determining what fundamental treatment the 
orchard probably needs."* 

Priming and heading -in. — The subject of pruning 
cannot be understood until the fundamental principles 
of the practice are clearly apprehended. It is, there- 
fore, well-nigh useless to state any general rules or 
precepts for the pruning of trees in a work like the 
present. It is only necessary to say that a heavy 
pruning upsets the habit of the tree, and generally 
sets it into the heavy production of wood for a time. 
The only proper pruning is one which is applied in 
something like the same proportion every year, and 
which begins the very year in which the plants are 
put into the ground. Trees which are alternately 
neglected and heavily pruned are kept in a condition 

*Bull. 102, Cornell Exp. Sta., 519 (Oct., 1895). \ fuller discussion of ring- 
ing may be foxind in "The Pruning-Book." 



Heading -in Fruit Trees. 293 

of unrest which is apt to be fatal to the best produc- 
tiveness. 

The question of heading -in of trees is one which 
is commonly misunderstood, and upon which there is 
the greatest demand for information. It is impossible 
to give any dogmatic statements as to whether the 
operation shall be practiced or not. There are two 
or three considerations which the grower should 
chiefly bear in mind, which may help him to think 
out the problem for himself. In the first place, it is 
largely a question of the type of training which the 
grower prefers : that is, every good fruit-grower will 
set before himself a certain ideal type or form of 
tree, and he will bend all his energies uniformly and 
consecutively to the working out of this idea through- 
out all the years of the plantation. If his ideal is 
for trees which shall have round and dense heads, 
then he will, of course, head -in the stock from year 
to year ; if, however, he sets for himself the ideal 
of a tree with the natural form and open head, he 
will not head -in, as a rule. Whichever purpose the 
grower sets in his mind should be worked out sys- 
tematically and logically from first to last. The 
other factor which chiefly determines the question of 
heading -in is that of redundant growth whilst the 
plants are young. As a rule, young trees grow 
more thrifty and upright than old ones do, and the 
grower should, therefore, not be misled into thinking 
that his trees will keep up their present pace after 
they have come into maturity and bearing. Kieffer 
pears, for example, make a very tall and narrow 



294 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

growth for the first two or three years, but when 
the bearing time arrives, this enormous growth is 
checked and the tree spreads. However, in such 
cases, it may be advisable to head -in the tree for a 
time, or until the period of maturity begins to ar- 
rive. It should always be borne in mind, however, 
that this heading -in is not the fundamental corrective 
of the difficulty ; in fact, it rather augments it. It 
is a question, therefore, if it is not better to pre- 
vent redundant growth by withholding tillage and 
fertilizers, rather than to produce it and then to 
take it off. 

Winter preparations. — In winter, plants are exposed 
to injuries of wind, snow, water, ice, mice, rabbits, 
and the like. Before the season closes, the farmer 
should see that young trees stand stiff and straight, 
and in order to keep them rigid and to afford good 
surface drainage, it is sometimes well (especially with 
newly set trees in cold climates) to bank up the 
trees with earth to the height of six or eight inches. 
In making the bank, the workman should be cau- 
tioned not to leave holes, from which the earth is 
taken, close about the tree, for the water is likely to 
stand in them, and it may do harm. In small -fruits, 
grapes and nursery stock, it is often advisable to 
plow a furrow to the plants, upon either side, in the 
fall. Care should be taken to provide for top drain- 
age if the conformation of the land is such as to 
hold surface water. 

A word should be said respecting the protection 
of trees from mice and other vermin. Mice and rab- 



Injuries from Rabbits and Mice. 295 

bits injure trees chiefly in cold winters, when the 
amount of green food is scarce. They are apt to be 
especially bad in new countries. The best preventive 
of injuries from mice is to see that there is no mate- 
rial, as dead grass or weeds, close to the base of the 
tree, in which the rodents can nest. If the litter is 
not taken away, it should at least be tramped down 
tightly before winter sets in. The best preventive of 
injury by rabbits is not to have the rabbits. If the 
brush piles and old fence -rows, in which the animals 
harbor, are cleaned away, there will commonly be 
little trouble ; and, at all events, a smart boy who is 
fond of hunting will ordinarily solve the question 
without help.* 

If mice are very serious, it may be advisable to 
put cylinders of wire netting about the trees, as al- 
ready recommended. Rolls of birch bark are some- 
times used in regions where the paper -birch grows. 
It should be borne in mind, however, that such cov- 
ers for the bodies of trees interfere with clean culture 
about the base of the tree, and they are apt to afford 
a most excellent place for the lodgment of borers and 
other insects. The common notion that wire screens, 
and tarred paper, and mounds of ashes, and the like, 
prevent borers from working, is unfounded, and is, 
in fact, likely to be the very opposite of the truth; 
for a wire screen, which soon fills with grass and 
litter, is a most inviting place for the congregation 
of insect life. 

♦Various washes and other devices for preventing the injuries by mice, 
rabbits and gophers may be found in "The Horticulturist's Rule-Book." 



296 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Depredations of stock and birds. — Injuries of trees 
can be prevented in sheep pastures and hog pastures 
by giving the animals plenty to eat and especially 
plenty to drink. They are very likely to gnaw the 
trees for the moisture which they secure. If, how- 
ever, the animals begin to injure the trees, the only 
recourse is either to take them out or build wide 
racks about the trunks ; but any sort of rack or 
fence about the tree prevents the proper care of the 
tree. 

The incursions of birds upon cherries and small- 
fruits can usually be prevented by planting in suffi- 
cient quantity that the birds may get their fill with- 
out ruining the plantation. Cherry orchards may 
sometimes be protected by planting a number of trees 
of very early sweet cherries around the outside of the 
plantation. These will be sufficient to satisfy the 
birds. In some cases, however, it is impossible to 
save the fruit unless fire-arms are used; but it is 
usually sufficient to fire blank cartridges a few times 
to scare the birds away, and thereby obviate the 
necessity of killing them. 

Small trees and garden plats of small fruits may 
also be protected from birds by means of netting 
which is now manufactured in this country for that 
purpose. Troop reports* as follows upon an experi- 
ment in this direction : 

"The past season we had several varieties of the 
Russian cherries which were fruiting for the first 
time, and wishing to test the practicability of cov- 

Vames Troop, Bull. 53. Indiana Exp. Sta. 125 (1894). 



Protection from Birds. 297 

ering trees as a protection from birds, we procured 
from the American Net and Twine Co., of Boston, 
Mass., several hundred square yards of bird netting, 
and a part of the trees were covered with this just 
before the fruit began to ripen. 

"Three trees of the Bessarabian variety were 
standing together in the same row, all well loaded 
with early fruit. Two of these were covered with the 
netting and the third left exposed. When the fruit 
on the covered trees was ready to pick, the exposed 
tree was completely stripped of every cherry, thus 
showing what the result would have been to the 
others had they not been protected. The question 
has often been asked : Will it pay ? 

"As already stated, the trees were young, having 
been set but six years. Each tree bore a half bushel 
or more of fine fruit this year, which sold for eight 
to ten cents per quart. The trees were of the round- 
headed type, about ten feet high, so that the labor 
involved in covering was comparatively slight. The 
amount of netting required for each tree was about 
seventy -five square yards, which cost four cents per 
square yard. As soon, however, as the fruit from 
these early trees was gathered, the netting was trans- 
ferred to later varieties, and the same process re- 
peated. So that when the experiment was completed 
the account stood as follows : 



To 75 yds. netting at 4 cents.. $3. 00 | By 16 qts. of cherries at lOcts.. $1.60 

" 18 " '' '' ^'8 " . 1.44 

$3.00 i $3.04 



298 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

"It will be seen that in this experiment the ac- 
counts nearly balanced at the end or the first year. 
With careful handling this netting will last ten years 
or more ; so that the question — will it pay to use 
it? — will depend largely upon circumstances. Judg- 
ing from our own experience the past season, where, 
in testing varieties of fruits, it becomes absolutely 
necessary that the fruit should remain on the tree 
until fully ripe, there seems to be no question about 
the expediency of covering the trees." 

Top -grafting hearing trees. ^ — One of the important 
factors in the secondary care of an apple orchard 
is the grafting over of old trees or of worthless 
varieties. It is often asked if it will pay to graft 
trees after they are fifteen or twenty years old. 
The answer depends entirely upon how profitable the 
trees are in their present condition. If they are 
bringing in no return, then nothing can be lost if 
they are grafted ; and if the trees are strong and 
healthy, there is no reason why much should not be 
gained. If the operation of top -grafting is properly 
done, the trees ought to be completely changed over 
to a new variety in three or four years. It should 
be said, however, that the careful fruit-grower will 
find out whether his trees are to be profitable or 
not long before they reach the age of fifteen years. 
Trees which have arrived at that age before the 
owner has found out whether they are useful or 
not, are those which advertise an indifference or 



' For advice respecting the top-working of young trees, see pages 234, 235. 



The Thinning of Fruit. 299 

neglect of the owner. Even with apple trees, the 
orchardist should be able to tell within ten or 
twelve years after they are set whether the trees are 
likely to be profitable or not, and if there are 
strong indications that the varieties are unsuited to 
his needs the sooner they are grafted over the 
better. In grafting over the top of an old apple 
tree, it should be borne in mind that it is at the 
best a harsh operation, and that the top should be 
replaced as quickly as possible. In other words, the 
effort should be made to graft only limbs of com- 
parativeh^ small size (say not more than an inch 
and a half in diameter, and preferably less), and to 
set very man}- cions, even if some of them need to 
be cut out after two or three years. The setting 
of so many cions is somewhat expensive, but the 
orchardist should be able to do the work himself. 
Finally, it should not be expected that an old tree 
which is remodeled by top -grafting shall be of as 
good and handy shape as one which has been grown 
right from the start. (See Figs. 127, 128, 129, 
"The Nursery -Book," third ed.) 

Thinning the fruit. — The thinning of fruit for the 
purpose of improving that which remains is a prac- 
tice which is always advised, but comparatively sel- 
dom followed. It has been demonstrated time and 
time again that no work in connection with a fruit 
plantation pays better than this thinning. It not 
only results in a much finer product, but it is also 
a means of destroying the insect -infested and dis- 
eased specimens, and of saving the energies and vi* 



300 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

tality of the tree. Persons complain that the thin- 
ning of fruit is expensive and laborious, and this is 
true ; but it is a fair question if there is anything 
worth the having* of which the same may not be 
said. If the operation pays, then there is no excuse 
for not performing it. It should be considered, also, 
that the fruit must all be picked sooner or later, and 
it really does not cost very much more to pick it 
early in the season than to pick it late ; in fact, 
much fruit which is not worth picking in the fall 
might have been eminently worth the labor if the 
trees had been thinned in the early summer. 

There are two general methods of thinning fruits: 
One is a matter of pruning, by means of which the 
superfluous branches, or even the fruit -spurs them- 
selves, are removed ; the other is the direct picking 
of the redundant fruits. There is no reason in the 
nature of things why trees should not bear every 
year ; but the formation of the fruit - spur is usually 
such as to preclude the production of fruit upon the 
same spur every year. The philosophy of the thin- 
ning of fruit, therefore, is that one spur shall bear 
one year, and another spur the next. This means 
that when fruit is thinned, it should be the object 
to remove it wholly from some spurs in order that 
they may produce fruit -buds for the following year. 
In those regions where certain fruits are systemati- 
cally thinned, the crop is obtained with great uni- 
formity every year. This is especially true of peaches 
along the Michigan lake shore, and in other places 
where this important fruit is well cai-ed for. There 



Expermient in Thinning Apples. '^01 

is no reason why the same should not be said of 
other kinds of fruits, and for every fruit region. 

There have been no long -continued and system- 
atic experiments upon the thinning of fruits in this 
country. One of the best investigations which has 
yet been undertaken was in connection with the 
State Experiment Station at Geneva, New York, 
under the direction of S. A. Beach in 1896. These 
experiments were made upon full-grown apple trees, 
and the following extract* details the methods and 
the results : 

"Trees of the same variety, as nearly alike in 
all respects as could be found, were paired for com- 
parison, one of each pair being thinned, the other 
left unthinned. Three ways of thinning were tried : 

"First. — All Avormy, knotty, or otherwise inferior 
fruit was removed, and all clusters thinned to one 
fruit. 

"Second. — Same as first, and remaining fruit 
thinned so that the apples were not less than four 
inches apart. 

"Third. — Same as first, and the remaining fruit 
thinned so that the apples were not less than six 
inches apart. 

"The sixteen trees which are included in the 
experiment belong to three varieties, namely : Rhode 
Island Greening, Baldwin, and Hubbardston. The 
Baldwins were most heavily loaded last season, and 
gave the most marked results in favor of thinning. 

"With the first method Baldwin, thinned, gave 

*Proe. W. New York Hort. Soc, 1897, p. 75. 



302 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

16 per cent less fruit, but about 10 per cent more 
No. 1 fruit than did the unthinned Baldwin. With 
the second method Baldwin, thinned, gave 26 per 
cent less fruit and about 22 per cent more No. 1 
fruit than did the corresponding trees which were 
not thinned. 

"With the third method, Hubbardston gave 25 
per cent less fruit, but about 17 per cent more 
No. 1 fruit than did the unthinned Hubbardston. 

"The Greenings were very heavilj^ loaded in 
1895, and in 1896 they bore a good crop, but were 
not overburdened, and needed comparatively little thin- 
ning. They were thinned according to the second 
method, and gave 6 per cent more fruit and about 
10 per cent more first-class fruit than the trees did 
which were not thinned. 

"In all these tests the picked fruit gave about 
one bushel of culls where the fruit was thinned, to 
three bushels where it was not thinned. Where the 
fruit was thinned the "drops" were fewer and con- 
siderably better, and in all grades the fruit was 
clearly superior in size and color to fruit of the same 
grade which was not thinned. The first grade in- 
cluded no apples less than two and one -half inches in 
diameter, and the proportion which measured two and 
one -half inches was a great deal larger where the 
fruit was thinned than where it was not, so that No. 
2 apples from trees which were thinned were muc}» 
superior to the No. 2 fruit from trees not thinned 
Mr. Wilson [in whose orchard the te3ts were made] 
estimates that the fruit from the trees which were 



Thinning Small -fruits. 303 

thinned would generally bring 10 per cent to 15 
per cent more in market than the same grade from 
trees which were not thinned. According to these 
results, the second method of thinning is enough 
superior to the first to more than pay for the extra 
work involved. The second and third methods can- 
not well be compared from the data now at hand." 

Maynard reports* experiments in thinning apples 
and plums, from which there were marked gains. 
To thin "full -sized" apple trees cost from 35 to 48 
cents. In plums, "a distinct advantage gained by 
thinning is the appreciable decrease in the ravages 
of fungous diseases, and to a small extent, of insect 
pests. This is especially noticeable in the case of 
monilia, or brown fruit -rot, which often ruins the 
peach or plum crop in wet seasons, while the speci- 
mens of fruit attacked by the cureulio were largely 
removed in thinning." 

Tests have been made in a small way in the 
thinning of small fruits by clipping off the ends of 
the clusters. Halsted reportst as follows upon such 
a test: "Some experiments were made here [New 
Jersey Experiment Station] last year with currants, 
by removing the lower half of the flower clusters 
with a pair of scissors. It is a well-known fact 
that only a few of the berries of any cluster usually 
mature, and the free end of the stem becomes dead 
before the fruit is ripe. By the removal of this 

*Bull. 44, Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. (1897). 

t (harden and Forest, iii. 19 (Jan. 8, 1890); also, Rept. N. J. Exp. Sta.. 1889, 
^^1. 



304- The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

portion before the flowers upon it havy opened, it 
was hoped that there might be a larger and better 
fruit produced upon the remaining portion of the 
cluster. 

"In the experiment, alternate bushes in a row 
were treated with the scissors, and in passing it 
may be said that this method of thinning can be 
done rapidly. When the fruit was ripe, the whole 
product from an average bush, of the clipped and 
of the undipped plants, was picked and spread out 
upon tables. Judges ignorant of what had been done 
were then called in to inspect the results. No one 
failed to notice at once the difference, and all pro- 
nounced in favor of the fruit that had been treated. 
The berries were larger and of more nearly uniform 
size and ripeness. Two hundred berries were next 
removed from the uncut clusters, and it required 
thirty -five clusters to furnish this number. They 
weighed, clear of ail stems, one hundred and fifty- 
two grams. The same number, furnished by thirty 
clipped clusters, weighed one hundred and sixty -three 
grams. These results show that there were about 
15 per cent more berries to the cluster upon the 
cut plants than upon the ordinarj'^ ones, and that 
these berries were about 7 per cent heavier. The 
question of quality was only determined by tasting, 
but there was no doubt in the minds of the judges 
that the thinned clusters bore fruit of the finest 
flavor. Like all other fruit, currants sell somewhat 
upon their appearance, and there is no mistake that 
from the uniform size and ripeness of the fruit and 



Thinning ISmall -fruits. 305 

the absence of dead tips on the stems, the clipped 
clusters were much the more attractive." 

Experiments made at the Cornell Station* with 
raspberries and blackberries failed, however, to give 
such specific results: " To test the feasibility of 
thinning berries, rows of Cuthbert raspberry and 
Early Cluster blackberry were thinned by clipping 
off the tips of most of the clusters, and also by 
reducing the number of clusters, especially in the 
raspberry. The result was not encouraging, for the 
eye could detect no increase of size in the berries 
on thinned plants, and as the principal object was 
to increase the size and attractiveness of the fruit, 
it seems to have failed of its purpose. It should 
be said, however, that the season was favorable for 
berries, and the crop was very fine. In a very dry 
season, or with varieties much inclined to overbear, 
the result might be different. In general, however, 
the thinning can be managed well enough and much 
more cheaply bj^ regulating the amount of bearing 
wood at the annual spring pruning." 

The thinning of tree fruits is done in essentially 
the same way in which the fruits are picked; that is, 
the fruits are picked off by hand, and are then 
dropped onto the ground, where they may either be 
allowed to lie, or, if they are infested with insects 
or disease, may be raked up and burned. It is 
customary to thin the fruits as soon as the dangers 
of spring frosts and other early accidents are past, 

*Fred W. Card, Bull. 57, Cornell Exp. Sta. (1893). 

u 



306 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

but before they have become of sufficient size to be 
a tax upon the tree. Peaches are generally thinned 
when they are about the size of a small hickory nut 
(that is, about the size of the end of one's thumb), 
and apples are thinned from that size until they are 
twice or sometimes even thrice as large. Various 
devices have been suggested for the thinning of fruit, 
but they are all impracticable, because they do not 
discriminate between good and poor fruit, because 
they do not leave the fruit well distributed over the 
branches, and because they are very likely to break 
off the spurs. Some of the implements figured in 
Chapter VIII. may be used in special cases. It 
really requires more discrimination and judgment to 
thin fruit properly than it does to pick it. In the 
thinning of peaches it is a good rule to allow none 
of the fruits to hang closer than four or six inches 
of each other. This means that in years of very 
heavy setting, fully two -thirds of all the fruits are 
to be picked off in June. In many parts of the 
country this thinning is systematically done, and it 
has in all such cases come to be regarded as an 
indispensable element in successful fruit-growing. No 
reliable estimates of the cost of thinning fruit can be 
given, because so much depends upon the form and 
pruning of the tree and the amount of fruit to be 
removed. The result is also greatly influenced by the 
character of the workmen and the price paid for labor. 
Full grown peach trees may be thinned for 15 to 50 
cents each. Apple trees twenty -five and thirty years 
old have been well thinned for 30 to 80 cents each. 



Maps for Fruit -grounds. 307 

MAPS AND RECORDS. 

One of the most annoying parts of fruit-growing 
is keeping track of the various varieties which in- 
evitably accumulate in plantations to which the owner 
gives much loving thought. The best means is a 
systematic plat, map or diagram of the plantation, 
in which everj^ tree or everj' row of small -fruits is 
given a number. It is well to designate the rows 
in orchards by letters, and then to number each tree 
in the row, beginning with number one ; or, some 
prefer to number all the trees in the plantation con- 
secutively. It is an ideal plan for the grower to 
devote a large blank -book or record to each plan- 
tation, entering the plan of the area in the earlier 
pages, and then recording the yield of each tree or 
each row on consecutive pages which are devoted to 
the different years. Such a book would be to the 
orchard what the Babcock test is to the dairy, — a 
means of determining the unprofitable individuals. 
If such a record were kept, it would not be many 
years before the orehardist would be experimenting 
with a goodly number of his trees in order to de- 
termine how to make them as productive as the 
best ones are. 

Of labels there are endless devices, but it must 
be remembered that no label can be expected to last 
in good condition more than six or eight years. For 
temporary or annual plants, where little horse work 
is done, the commercial garden stakes, 12x1% in., 
are excellent. These cost, when painted and made of 



'-{08 Thf" Friueiple.s of Fruit -yrfnving. 

soft, clear pine, $4 to $5 per thousand. For a more 
permanent stake label, one cut from clear pine, 2 ft. 
long, 3% in. wide, 1% in. thick, and sawed to a 
point, is one of the best. These are given two thin 
coats of white lead, care being taken not to pile 
them upon their faces until ^ihoroughly dry, to avoid 
a rough surface for the pencil. The record may be 
made by a large soft pencil, like a carpenter's pencil, 
or by a brush and black paint ; but for all annual 
crops the pencil will be found more serviceable. At 
the end of the season, or when the record becomes 
dim, a thin shaving is planed off the face of the 
label, it is repainted, and used again. The label is 
thick enough to allow of many annual dressings, 
while the lower portion is not reduced, and it there- 
fore lasts for many years and is strong enough to 
resist the shocks of cultivator or whippletrees. For 
ornamental bushes this large label is too conspicu- 
ous, and for this purpose a pine label 1% in. wide, 
/{ in. thick, and 18 or 20 in. long is excellent. The 
lower half is soaked in a strong solution of sulphate 
of iron (copperas), and, after drying, in lime water, 
to preserve it. 

A great variety of labels has been recommended 
for trees, but it is doubtful if we have yet found the 
ideal label, although some of those which are here 
described seem to satisfy most needs. Many people 
like zinc labels (No. 11, Fig. 46), cut in narrow 
strips from a sheet of the metal. The record is made 
upon the zinc with a soft lead pencil, and the label is 
then wound about a branch. Verv often the record is 



Various Labels. 309 

indistinct upon the zinc label, but the chief fault is 
its inconspicuousness. It requires much searching to 
find a zinc label upon a large tree, and this objection 
holds with almost every practicable tree label which 
has been introduced, even with the three or four -inch 
pine labels which are common in the market. Patent 
zinc and copper labels, which are cut from very thin 
metal, so that the record can be made by the impres- 
sions of a sharp point or style, have been tried at 
Cornell. "These pretty and so-called indestructible 
labels are furnished with an eyelet through which the 
wire passes. We were much pleased with these 
labels when we put them upon our orchard trees 
one fall ; but the next spring we found that the 
metal had broken away from the eyelets, and nothing 
remained of them but a hole hung upon a wire."* 

The Cornell label is the device shown at No. 3, in 
the illustration (Fig. 46). "We buy the pine 'pack- 
age label,' which is used by nurserymen, and which 
is 6 in. long and 1% in. wide. These labels cost, 
painted, $1.30 per thousand. These are wired with 
stiff, heavj-, galvanized wire, much like that used for 
pail bales, and not less than eighteen inches is used 
upon each label. Hooks are turned in the ends of 
the wires before the labels are taken to the field. 
A pail of pure white lead, well thinned with oil, is 
taken to the field with the labels. The record is 
made with a very soft pencil, the label is dipped 
into the paint, the wire is placed about a conspic- 

*Bull. 61. Cornell Exp. vSta. Ul. 




Fig. 46. Various types of tree labels. See explanation, on pages 308-311. 



Various Labels. 311 

uous limb, and the hooks are joined with a pair of 
pliers. The paint at first almost completely obscures 
the writing, but some of it drips off and the re- 
mainder dries in, so that the record becomes bright 
and the soft pencil marks are indelibly preserved, 
while the label remains white. If the paint is 
brushed on, the soft writing will be blurred. If in 
the future the wood becomes gray, the label can be 
brightened by immersing it in a pot of white lead, 
without removing it from the tree. The large loop 
of wire allows of the growth of the branch, and the 
label hangs so low that it can be seen at a glance. 
The heavy, stiff wire insures the safety of the label 
against boys and workmen. It cannot be removed 
without a pair of pincers. The label is large 
enough to allow of a complete record of the name 
of the variety, the place of purchase, age, and other 
matters; and it is readily found."* 

The various labels which are shown in Fig. 46, 
are as follows ; 1, 2, German labels, made of 
glazed earthenware, with the name colored blue and 
sunken. Strong copper wire, coiled, to allow of the 
growth of the limb, holds the label to the tree. 3, 
Cornell label, described above. 4, double wooden 
label, consisting of two common wooden labels fas- 
tened together. The name is written upon the outside 
of the double label, as in any other label, but it is 
also written on the inside to insure permanence. 
When the outside writing is worn off, the label is 

*Bull 61. Cornell Exp. Sta., 341. 



312 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



opened and the inside is still bright. The label is 
fastened to the tree by a tack or small nail, as 
shown in the cut at the right. The label is seen" 
opened in the cut at the left. 5, 
6, zinc labels, used at the New York 
State Experiment Station, Geneva. 
The wire is driven into the tree, 
and the name is written or printed 
on the zinc with black paint. 7, 
common hand -made wooden tag, ta- 
ken from an old tree in the test or- 
chard of the late Charles Downing, 
Newburgh, N. Y. 8, thin copper 
label, with the name indented into 
the metal by the use of a hard- 
pointed instrument. Some metal 
labels are apt to tear out at the 
hole when exposed to winds. 9, 
common painted pine label used by 
nurserymen, and costing (without 
the copper wire) about 35 cents per 
thousand, for the common size, 
which is 3% inches long. 10, 
used somewhat 
at Cornell, consisting of a tag of 
sheet lead securely fastened to a coiled brass wire. 
The wire is secured to the body of the tree by a 
staple or screw -eye, and it is expected that the wire 
will become imbedded in the trunk as the tree 
grows. No. 11, common zinc label or tally, de- 
scribed on page 308. Fig. 47 is Paddock's vine- 




r- ^ w 



Fig. 47. Paddock's vineyard t i ? i i i 

label. Lodeman's label. 



Winter- killing of Trees. 313 

yard label (designed by W. Paddock, State Experi- 
ment Station, Geneva, N. Y.). The label is a strip 
of heavy zinc secured to a stiff galvanized wire. 
This wire or shank is provided with a hook at the 
lower end and a half -hitch near its middle, so that it 
can be securely adjusted to the wires of the trellis, 
holding the label well above the foliage. 

INJURIES BY COLD AND RAIN. 

There are two distinct types of injuries to fruit 
plants by cold, — true winter -killing (or the injury of 
the tree or buds when perfectly dormant by the low 
temperature of winter time), and the killing of the 
growing or swelling parts by the ''cold snaps" or 
frosts of late spring and early fall. Either subject 
is too large for full elaboration in the present vol- 
ume, and therefore only some of the most obvious 
and usual aspects of the subjects are here considered. 

Winter - killing of the wood. — There are three fac- 
tors which chiefly appeal to the fruit-grower in the 
winter -killing of trees, — positive cold, very dry or 
very wet soil, and heaving of the land by frost. 
The subject of "dry freezing" has already been dis- 
cussed to some extent in Chapter I. The heaving 
of the land is prevented by drainage, by proper 
methods of tillage, and by the judicious use of cover 
crops. The degree of cold may be somewhat modi- 
fied, as we have already found, by exercising judg- 
ment in the selection of site and exposure, and by 
the careful employment of wind-breaks. Yet, winter- 



314 TJm Principles of Fruit-growing. 

killing must always be one of the gravest risks 
which the fruit-grower assumes when he undertakes 
the business. 

Winter -injury to the trees or plants themselves 
usually appears in the form of splits or long checks 
in the trunks, or in the outright death of the ends 
of the branches, or even of the entire plant. For 
the splits lengthwise the trunk, the proper treatment 
is to pare off the dead and loosened bark to the 
"quick" just as soon as the bark begins to spread, 
and to cover the surface of the wound (and the 
cleft) with Bordeaux mixture or paint. ^'^' 

The proper treatment for frozen -back trees must 
be determined for each particular case; but it should 
be borne in mind that the injured portion is no 
longer of any use to the plant, whilst it may be a 
positive detriment by accelerating the evaporation of 
moisture. The best treatment for plants seriously 
injured upon the extremities is to cut them back 
very heavily. This severe heading -in — sometimes to 
the extent of three or four feet — removes the driest 
and weakest portions, and concentrates the energy 
of the tree into a comparatively small area of top. 
Heavy pruning always tends towards the production 
of wood, and this wood production is probably never 
more needed than in winter- injured trees, for it tends 
to renew the vitality of the tree. The philosophy 
of this becomes apparent upon a moment's reflec- 
tion. The browned and injured wood can never re- 

*The general subject of treating and repairing injured trees is fully diie- 
cussed, with illustrations, in "The Pruning-Book." 



Treating Frozen Trees. 315 

gain its former usefulness. New tissue must be 
developed as quickly as possible, in order to carry 
forward and to maintain the vegetative energies. 
This new" tissue is laid on over the old, and the 
old thereby quickly becomes sealed in, so to speak, 
and removed from the agencies of decay. Every 
observant fruit -growler knows that if a tree which is 
severely winter -injured in limb and trunk were to 
bear even a partial crop of fruit in the coming sea- 
son, it would very likely die outright. If, however, 
all its energies were directed to the development of 
new tissue, the injury would soon be overgrown. 
The injured w^ood, like the heartwood of the tree, is 
soon removed from active participation in the vital 
processes. It therefore follows that the danger re- 
sulting from the browning or blackening of the wood 
by winter -injury depends very much upon the sub- 
sequent treatment of the trees. Fig. 48 shows the 
body of a young plum tree (in longitudinal and 
cross -wise sections) which was frozen black in the 
severe winter of 1895-6. It was heavily pruned in 
the spring of 1896, and in the fall had made a ring 
of bright new wood, which was amply sufficient to 
maintain the tree in perfect health for a long life. 
This appearance is common in nursery stock the 
year following a very hard winter, but such trees 
may not be permanently injured. 

There are instances in which this heavy heading- 
back seems to do more harm than good. These are 
cases in which the entire tree is almost uniformly in- 
jured, and the plant seems to need the stimulus of 



316 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



all its buds to bring out the feeble life 
which is still left to it ; but these cases 
are comparatively rare. It is probable 
that the greater number of reported in- 
stances of death due to heavy pruning 
'of winter -injured trees are of such trees 
as would have died under any treatment. 
Winter -killed plants often retain suffi- 
cient vitality to enable them to leaf out 
or to bloom, and sometimes even to be- 
gin growth, but when the stored vital- 
ity of the tissues is exhausted the plant 
perishes. This explains the phenomenon, 
which, after a bad winter, nearly always 
puzzles the inobservant fruit-grower, of 
trees starting into feeble growth and 
then suddenly dying when warm and dry 
weather approaches. 

Winter -killing of the fruit- 
buds. — In severe winters, the 
entire fruit -spur (in the spur- 
fruits, as apples, pears, plums 
and apricots) may be killed 
outright, but the commoner 
ease is the death of the 
bud only. The bud may be 
entirely killed, in which case 
it soon turns brown through- 
out its entire diameter and the flower never opens : 
or only the pistil (the central organ, which ripens into 
the fruit) may be killed, in which case the flower may 




Fig. 48. Showing the new tissue 
formed ai'ound winter-injured wood 



Winter -killing of Buds. 



317 




open and appear to be perfectly normal to the un- 
critical observer. The latter case is common in 
peaches and apricots. Fig. 49 illustrates the point. 
The flower at the right was unin- 
jured by the winter, and the pistil 
is seen, grown full length, at 1. 
In the other flower, the pistil, at 
2, is dead. We know that this 
pistil was killed before the bud be- 
gan to swell, because it retains the 
small size which it must have 
had in the dormant bud. If it 
had been killed after the bud had Fig. 49. Normal apricot flower 
swollen, it would have appeared < t "C:!"™ ^ttS. '"^ 
as a much larger and a more 
or less crumpled or withered organ, as in b, Fig. 
52, page 320. 

A true fruit -bud is one in which the flower, or 
cluster of flowers, is present in miniature. (See 

"The Pruning- Book" 
for full discussion 
of fruit -buds.) This 
flower occupies the 
very center of the 
bud, and is sur- 
rounded by dense lay- 
ers of scales. A 
healthy bud is nor- 
mally green in the central part in cross -section. 
When the bud has been killed by the winter, in 
the usual manner, this central portion of the 






a b c 

Fig. 50. Apricot buds, a, alive ; b and c 
killed by winter. Enlarged. 



318 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



flower becomes prominently discolored or almost black. 
Fig. 50 shows a fresh or live bud at a, and a killed 
bud at & and c. When only the pistil is killed, un- 
trained eyes may not detect the injury. The general 
run of examinations made of buds by farmers, to de- 
termine if there is winter -injury, are of little conse- 





Fig. 51, Showing structure of peach buds. 

quence. Except in very pronounced instances, the 
only reliable examination is one which is made under 
a dissecting microscope. 

Halsted* makes some good observations in this 
direction : " Longitudinal sections through the buds 
show something of what has taken place in the pre- 



* Kept. New Jersey Exp. Sta. 



also Amer. Gard. xi. 



Killing of Fruit -huds. 319 

maturely developed buds. At a, Fig. 51, in shown 
a section through a bud, as found in January of an 
ordinary winter. The bud scales overlap each other 
closely, and inclose all the more tender parts that go 
to make up the blossom. The pistil, that is to de- 
velop into the fruit, occupies the center, and is a 
somewhat flask -shaped body, while next to it are the 
floral parts, to which the stamens are attached. The 
stamens are small and almost colorless. Turning now 
to &, which represents a section through a half -opened 
bud, it will be seen that there is very little change 
in the pistil. This portion is the last to be affected 
by the modifying circumstances; but the scales are 
wide open at the top, the stamens have enlarged re- 
markably, and it is to their development that much 
of the opening out of the scales is due. It is only 
necessary, at this time, to call attention to the fact 
that the stamens ai'e organs for the production of pol- 
len, and this flower -dust is only used to stimulate the 
receptive pistil into new life. And, while the growth 
of the pistil is mostly after fertilization, it is, however, 
true that during the time when it is receptive to the 
pollen it is most susceptible to cold and other condi- 
tions, and it is the portion of a peach bud that first 
manifests injury from frost or other exposure. 

"The inference is natural that cold can get into 
an open bud much more easily than a closed one, 
but we need to look back of the visible differences 
to the vital conditions. Vegetable tissues in active 
condition are less able to bear extremes of heat and 
cold than those in a quiescent state. A seed, for 



320 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



example, that is dormant will bear the conditions 
without injury that would kill it if germination was 
taking place. The delicate structure at the center 
of a flower not only needs to be kept, by the infold- 
ing bud scales, from being exposed to the elements, 
but, most of all, it requires that an inactive condi- 
tion within itself shall prevail. 
A well -prepared bud is like a 
seed, and becomes most sus- 
ceptible to sudden changes 
only when it is unfolding 
or preparing to grow. It is 
not so much the opening of 
the bud scales as the grow- 
ing condition within, result- 
ing in the unfolding, that 
permits the dangerous results. 
"The pistil is the part 
first to show that the flower 
bud is blasted and worthless. 
The green, fresh appearance 
is replaced by brownness, 
and the former plump, upright organ becomes 
shriveled and drooping. In Fig. 52, at a, is shown 
a healthy pistil, as seen in a live bud. To the 
right, at 6, is another pistil that has recently been 
killed, and was turning brown. The stamens are the 
next to change, in the same way, from the normal 
color to the brown of death. The other less vital 
organs of the blossom finally die, and after a short 
time become a dark and worthless substance. If the 




Fig. 52. Live and killed i)istil.'. 



Killing of Fruit -hiids. 321 

bud is not opened, it may require a longitudinal 
cut of the knife to determine the exact condition, 
but last winter an ordinary pinch of the swollen bud 




Fig. 53. Showing, respectively, swollen bnds of apricot, peacli, Japan plum, 
and pear, all of which were uninjured by 14° of frost. 

was enough to demonstrate that all Avas blasted and 
worthless within." 

Injuries to the swelling hucls. — A great amount of 
mischief is done by "cold snaps" after the buds have 
begun to swell, and yet the disaster is not so easily 
wrought, — at least not in the north, — as is commonly 
supposed. Even the buds of the tenderer fruits may 
endure very sharp freezes after they have begun to 



322 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

show color. In the spring of 1897, some observa- 
tions were made upon this point at Cornell. Buds 
of apricots, peaches, plums and pears (as shown in 
Fig. 53) had swollen to three or four times their 
normal size. The pink color of the apricot buds was 
distinctly visible, and the tips of the anthers could 
be seen in the Japan plums by looking down squarely 
upon the buds. In this condition, the buds endured 
with no injury the following temperatures, as taken 
by self -registering thermometers hung in the trees 
(very light snow on the ground and a wind blowing 
all night) : 

Lowest temperature. 

April 20, Apricot, peach, Japan plum, pear 18° 

April 21, Apricot, peach, pear 19° 

Japan plum 18° 

It will be seen that these buds endured 14 degrees 
of frost without injury. Upon the coldest morning, 
the buds were stiff from freezing, and in some in- 
stances the backs and tips of some of the petals were 
permanently discolored. The buds swelled with the 
freezing, but returned to their previous size when 
thawed out, but they looked as if withered for several 
days, — or until active expansion began. It is very 
probable that buds cannot endure this degree of cold 
further south. 

Injuries to floivers and groiving parts. — When the 
flowers have fully expanded, a comparatively light 
frost will destroy them. This is shown in the fact 
that a very slight elevation in a blackberry or straw- 



Frost Injury to Flowers. 



323 




■pis- 5*. A strawberry 
nubbin, due to frost. 



oerry patch is often sufficient to avert injury. The 
pistils seem to suffer first. A strawberry nubbin is 
shown in Fig. 54. The top of the berry (or the bot- 
tom, as it hangs) is flattened and 
deformed. This is generally due 
to the freezing of the upper pis- 
tils in the flower, as it stood erect. 
Nubbins are sometimes the result 
of imperfect pollination, but in 
such cases the deformity is more 
apt to be upon the sides than upon the top, for 
the top pistils are the ones which are very likely to 
be fertilized by insects. 

A similar case is reported upon blackberries at 
Cornell.* "The only serious ac- 
cident which is known to injure 
the blackberry crop in this state 
is frost ; and in most cases the 
injury is unavoidable, even though 
the grower has warning of its 
approach. In the six crops w^hich 
we have grown in our patches 
here, only this year have we suf 
ered from frost, and even this 
year, when the cold wave was 
unusuall}' late and severe, only 
the lowest places suffered seri- 
ously. Drawings of blackberry flowers were made 
upon the spot, two or three days after the frost, and 




Fig. 55. Blackberry flower; 
full size. 



*Bull. 99. Cornell Exp. Sta. 1895. 



324 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 




Fig. 56. Flower ruined 
by frost. 



they are here reproduced, natural 
size. A normal, uninjured flower 
is shown in Fig. 55. Inside the ^^.^ .'.!!(^1>';' 
five white petals or leaves are seen ( 
the numerous sprawling stamens 
or so-called male organs, each one 
bearing an enlargement or anther 
on the end, inside which the 
pollen is borne. In the center 
of the flower is the head or 
cluster of pistils or so-called fe- 
male organs, each of which ripens into one of the 
Uttle grains which go to make up the blackberry. 

The frost killed these 

organs, so that the 

center of the flower 

bore only a small 

black column of dead 

pistils (see Fig. 56). 

Now and then, one 

or more of these 

pistils in the head 

^8^ » ™ f^scaped, and developed into a 

>^^^^ / \\j fruit -grain, so that the berry 

^"^^ ^ became a nubbin. Fig. 57 shows 

The dead and aborted fruits at 

picking time. At the top of the 

picture are some fruits (N, N,) 

in which one or two grains or 

, . drupes are full grown, whilst the 

Fig. 57. Blackberry fruits ^ *^ ' 

ruined by frost. rest of the berry failed to develop." 




Frost Injury to Flowers. 



325 



Upon the 8tli of Maj^ 1897, a temperature of 27° 
(5 degrees of frost) was recorded by self -registering 
thermometers hiinji- in fruit trees at Cornell, but no 
injury resulted. At this time, all the petals had 
dropped from apricot flowers, but the calyx ring had 
not 3'et fallen from 
the young fruits ; 
peach flowers were 
in full bloom, but 
their fertilization had 
mostly taken place ; 
Japan plum flowers 
were just dropping, 
and pear flowers were 
open, but not yet 
fully fertilized. 

Young fruits of 
apples and pears 
may sometimes re- 
cover from a severe 
freeze and make per- 
fect specimens. It 
is even insisted by ^^^ 
some careful observ- 
ers that they sometimes recover even if frozen solid 
shortly after they are "set," the fruits failing to de- 
velop perfect seeds thereafter.* Fruits which are 




Frost injury ou young Kieffer pears. 



*"The freeze of May, 1895, froze the fruit solid. The center of each pear 
turned black, and yet they persisted in growing. There were eighty barrels. 
I doubt if there was a seed or core in the whole lot. The quality was the 
best that I have ever seen." — Extract from letter from Benj. F. Hawes, Oak- 
field, N. Y. 



326 



The Principles of Fruit -growhig. 



simply frost-bitten, — that is, injured by a deposit of 
white frost, — are very likely to persist, but to show 
blemishes or deformities even at maturity. A com- 
mon effect of very late frosts is to leave a distinct 
russet zone upon the fruit. This zone marks the 
position of the frost upon the young fruit. Apples 
and pears are usually still erect when these frosts 
occur, and the dew, — which, when frozen, is frost, — 
probably settles in a ring or belt near the top of the 
fruit or midway down it. The exact position and 
conformation of this deposit of dew are, of course, 
determined by the shape, position and exposure of the 
fruit. Figs. 58 and 59 show the frost zones ou 




Fig. 59. Frost injuries on young apples. 



young pears and apples. This injured, corky tissue 
has the power of increasing itself by the extension 
of the abnormal cells, so that the zone is likely to 



Injuries to the Fruits 



327 



widen with the growth of tlie fruit. Mature fruits, 
with the rustj^ frost marks still conspicuous, are seen 
in Figs. 60 and 61. In some cases, the growth of 




Fig. CO. Frost mark on a iiuitui 
Flemish Beauty pear. 



Fig. 61. Rusty fro^t zone around 
mature apple. 



tissue in the injured zone seems to be slow, resulting 
in a constriction of the fruit at that point. 

Amongst the most serious results of very late 
frosts in the north are the injuries to vineyards. The 
cold of May 13, 1895, wrought great havoc in 
the Chautauqua vineyards of New York, and 
forced the problem of how to manage frozen vines 



328 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



upon the attention of growers. Fig. 62 shows the 
shoots of a grape vine as injnred by the freeze. 
Acres of vineyards, which had made several inches 
of growth, were seemingly killed by the disaster. 




Fig. 62. Grape shoots ruined by the freeze of May, 1805. 

The extent to which the vines had grown is shown 
by Fig. 63 (page 330). The spray npon the left 
shows the grapes of normal size (that is, from unin- 
jured shoots) as they looked in midsummer. The 
central spray shows grapes which were produced from 
the second crop of flowers, which appeared after the 



Treating Frozen Vines, 329 

vines begau to recuperate. The right-hand spray 
shows a cluster of flowers appearing upon a belated 
shoot. Of course, only the clusters of the largest 
size, as shown at the left, ripened into good fruit. 

In proceeding to treat frozen vines, like those de- 
scribed, it must first of all be borne in mind that 
the injured parts are of no further use to the plants, 
and, as we have seen, they are very apt to weaken 
the plant by causing it to lose much of its nnnsture. 
The rational procedure, therefore, is to strip off all 
the frozen shoots soon after the disaster, s(^ as to 
allow the energies of the plant to divert themselves 
to the production of new shoots. When the injured 
parts are soft and small, it is customary to remove 
them by pulling them off, rather than by cutting 
them off. In vineyards which are well pruned, the 
cost of stripping ought not to exceed one dollar an acre. 

What is an injurious degree of cold f'^ — To this 
oft- asked question there can be no specific answer, 
because so much depends upon the latitude, the 
time of year and the condition of the plants. 
Hammont gives the following " table of temperatures 
at which the following plants are liable to receive 
injury from fi'osts, compiled from infornuition received 
from horticulturists, orchardists and gardeners through- 
out the entire Pacific coast. 

"The temperatures given are as nearly as pos- 
sible those in contact with the plant itself. 

* A discussion of acclimatization, and other problems of climate and plants, 
may be found in "The Survival of the Vnlike." 

t W. H. Hammon, "Frost, How and When to Prevent Injxiry Thereby," 1896, 








I- "O li 
a 8 

p, at 



Injurious Degrees of Cold. 



331 



PiiAjJTS OR Fruits. In bud. 

Almonds 28° 

Apples 27 

Apricots ;{0 

Asparagus 29 

Bananas 31 

Barley 

Beans 

Beets 

Cantaloupes 32 

Celery 

Cucumbers 31 

Cymlings, or squash 31 

Flowers* - 31 

'jrrapes 31 

Grape-fruit 30 

Lemons 30 

Mandarins and Tangerines. . 31 

Oats 31 

Olives 30 

Onions 

Orangest 30 

Peaches 29 

Pears 28 

Peas 29 

Plums 30 

Potatoes, Irish 30 

" sweet, and tomatoes 31 

Prunes 30 

Shrubs, roses or trees 26 to 30 

Strawberries 28 

Spinach 

Turnips 

Watermelons 

Wheat 

Walnuts, English 30 



In. blos- 
som. 


In setting 
fruit. 


At other 
times. 


30° 


30° 


'•*8° 


29 


30 


2(> 


31 


32 


30 


29 


29 


2G 


31 


32 


31 


29 






31 




31 
25 


32 




30 to 31 

28 


31 


31 


32 


31 


31 


30 


31 


31 


30 


31 


30 


28 


31 


31 


28 


31 


31 


28 


31 


31 


28 


31 


31 18 


ripe, 24 green 
29 


31 


31 20 


ripe, 29 green 


30 


30 


29 


29 


29 


28 


30 


30 


25 


31 


31 


29 


30 


30 


31 


31 


31 


31 


31 


31 


29 


28 to 32 




to 20 


28 


28 


30 

21 

20 

28 to 31 


31 


31 




31 


31 


28 



* Depends on variety. 

+ Injured at two degrees higher if continued 4 to 6 hours. 



332 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

We have already seen (page 322) that at Ithaca, 
New York, apricots, peaches and other fruits werft 
able to endure a temperature of 18°, even when 
the buds were well swollen. In respect to the 
variations in the effects of Avinter temperatures, 
McCluer* writes from the Illinois Experiment Sta- 
tion as follows : 

"Here, we ordinarily think of 14° or 15° below 
zero as fatal to the peach crop, and as we often 
have a lower temperature than that but few peaches 
are planted. During the winter of 1894-5 the ther- 
mometer several times ranged below 20, and once 
sank to 25 below zero, and yet only half the peach 
buds were killed, and the trees produced a good 
crop the season following. Last winter, with a 
minimum temperature of only 5° below zero, fully 
one -third of the peach buds were killed. I do not 
know just what conditions made the buds more 
hardy one season than another ; neither do I know 
why part of the buds on a tree should be more 
hardy than the rest. Even in the axil of the same 
leaf one bud may be killed and the other live. 

"Other organic substances show the same differ- 
ences. In a half -bushel basket of potatoes exposed 
to the cold in a cellar, I have often found frozen 
tubers scattered through the basket and the rest not 
frozen. In the blossom -buds of the cherry and plum 
one or more may often be found killed, while the 
rest have escaped. 

*G. W. McCluer, Garden and Forest, ix. 209 (May 20, 1896) 



Effects of Rain at Blooming -time. 333 

"When we first began to spray our peach trees 
to prevent the fruit from rotting, the Bordeaux 
mixture used was not properly prepared, and as a 
consequence a large part of the leaves on the sprayed 
trees fell off prematurely. The next spring it was 
found that there was a larger proportion of live 
buds on the trees from which the leaves had fallen 
than on the rest of the same variety. My explana- 
tion at the time was that the buds become less 
hardy in proportion as they are more developed. 
We know this is true in the spring. The question 
at once arises, at what stage in the development of 
a bud is it the most hai-dy, and how can we l)est 
control that development '] This seems to me a 
promising field for careful study." 

The effect of rain upon hlossoms. — It is perfectly 
well known that the weather conditions in which 
plants are growing may profoundly affect the 
fecundity of the flowers. In the forcing of winter 
vegetables, for example, it is of the greatest impor- 
tance to keep the house dr}^ and warm when polli- 
nation is to be effected, and better results — both in 
the amount of i^oUen produced, and in the ease 
with which it is discharged from the anthers — are 
commonly obtained in bright sunshine. (See, also, 
page 227.) It is verj^ probable that if the flowers 
of fruit plants were to be kept constantly wet, very 
little pollination would take place. It is probable, 
also, that dashing rains at blossoming time wash 
away much of the pollen, but it is doubtful if 
enough of it would be lost in such passing storms 



334 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

to seriously reduce the crop of fruit. The most 
disastrous storms are probably those milder ones of 
long duration, and which are accompanied by a low 
temperature. Not only may such weather tend to 
prevent the discharge of pollen, but it prohibits the 
work of insects. 

It must be admitted that the above remarks are 
inferences. We have almost no exact knowledge 
as to the effect of rain storms upon the setting of' 
fruit. A few small studies have so far been made 
in this countr}^, and these are now quoted. 

Beach and Fairchild* report experiments in ap- 
plying continuous sprays to pears and grapes. "On 
May 16 two Mount Vernon pear trees, apparently 
of equal vigor, standing within one hundred feet 
of each other, were selected. Into one was thrust 
the Vermorel nozzle, with its broad, fine spray. 
The tree was about twenty -five feet high, and the 
spray from the nozzle did not entirely cover it ; in 
fact, the original design, soon abandoned, was to wet 
only one -half of the tree, and leave the other half 
dry. At the inauguration of the experiment, only a 
few blossoms had opened upon either tree, and, as 
no insects had been busy about the fruit trees, owing 
to the cold weather immediately preceding, no risk 
from previous pollination was run. The water was 
turned on at noon of May 16, and kept running 
(except from 10 A. M. of the 21st, to 10 A.M. of 
the 23d, during ai almost constant rain-storm, pre- 



* Eleventh Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Exp Sta. for 1892, 607. 



Rain at Blossoming -time. 335 

yipitating .72 of an inch of water), until 3 P. M. 
of the 25th. The total length of time in which the 
tree was kept wet was two hundred and nineteen 
hours, or nine days and three hours. 

"On May 17, after the tree had been under the 
spray twenty -four hours, an examination was made 
of the stigmas of many of the flowers, and they 
were found to be dusted with pollen, although no 
insects had been seen about the tree. Pollen was 
taken from fresh anthers on the 21st (the fifth day), 
and placed in weak sugar solution, to test its ger- 
minative power. It proved to be perfectly capable of 
germination. The flowers at this time presented a 
curious appearance. The anthers of the innermost 
stamens were plump and of their normal pink color, 
while the outermost ones were swollen and decayed, 
and contained many disintegrated pollen grains, and 
a few that had evidently been induced to germinate 
by the excess of moisture. The power of the male 
elements to withstand long- continued moisture was 
apparently great, for at the close of the experiment, 
after the rain had ceased, many anthers opened and 
shed an abundance of pollen, while the anthers of 
flowers on adjacent trees had withered and fallen sev- 
eral days previously. After turning off the water , on 
the 25th, an examination with a hand lens was made 
of flowers on both the side nearest to and that far- 
thest from the spray, with the following result : 

"Of four hundred and three flowers counted on 
the side receiving the most water, one hundred and 
three were possessed of plump anthers and apparently 



336 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

normal stigmas. Of three hundred and three flowers 
upon the dryer side, only three were still fresh and 
eapable of fertilization. The effect of the water in 
retarding the development of the flowers was strik- 
ingly illustrated. 

'^ ^ *J'' *J^ *^ *J^ ■•I-' "4* "J-* ^ "Jr 

•T* *T^ '^~* *X* "T* 'T* 'i"* *?* 'T* •T' *T* 

"Although, as mentioned above, after the spray 
had been removed man^^ flowers with perfect anthers 
and pistils remained capable, pref=umahly, of self-pol- 
lination, only one fruit, bearing three seeds, was 
borne by the tree. This was produced about midway 
between that half more heavily wet down and that 
more nearly dry. The unsprayed tree produced a fair 
crop of normal fruit. 

"Two vines situated near each other were selected 
for an experiment. One was left untreated for a 
check, the other was sprayed for twelve nights and 
days. Since the Duchess came into blossom later 
than was anticipated, the sprayed vine was under 
treatment a week before the check began to bloom. 
Unavoidably the spraj^ was discontinued before either 
of the vines was out of blossom. It will, therefore, 
be seen that the twelve days' treatment did not cover 
the entire period that the vines were in bloom. 

"The first apparent effect of the spray was to re- 
tard the opening of the grape blossoms four days, as 
compared with the blossoming of the check vine. 
This effect was noticeable during the blossoming 
period, and the treated vine continued in blossom 
at least four days longer than the check. Retarding 
the blossoming period, ho\^ever, had no perceptible 



Rain at Blossoming -time. 337 

influence on the ripening of the fruit, for the fruit of 
both vines ripened at the same time. * * * 

"A microscopic examination, made after the spray 
had been running eleven days, failed to disclose any 
perceptible injury to the pollen. The pollen germs 
were not disintegrated, nor had they germinated, and 
no difference could be detected between them and 
pollen grains from the check vine. By its peculiar 
structure the grape blossom is well adapted to with- 
stand protracted rains without injurj^ to the sexual 
organs. As shown by one of the writers in a re- 
cent paper (see page 230), many grapes pollenize 
their own stigmas before the blossoms open enough 
to allow the entrance of outside pollen, and the 
Duchess belongs to this class. Although self-pollina- 
tion is thus insured, efficient fertilization does not 
always follow, and consequently in some varieties 
it does not result in the production of fruit. Such 
grapes are able to set fruit only when supplied with 
outside pollen. It is, therefore, probable that with 
grapes of this class, e. g., Salem and Brighton, 
the effect of constant spraying throughout the blos- 
soming period would give more marked results than 
with the variety noted in this experiment. 

"The most marked and permanent influence of 
the spray was seen in the character of the fruit. 
The clusters from the treated vine had very many 
abortive berries, either with no seeds at all or with 
only mere rudiments of seeds. A few clusters were 
nearly or quite perfect. These may have blossomed 
after the spray had been discontinued. All other 



838 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

clusters had many abortive fruits, and showed every 
gradation of loss up to 80 or 90 per cent. No clus- 
ter was seen in which all the berries were abortive. 
With the check vine perfect clusters were numerous, 
and abortive berries were comparatively few. The 
whole loss of fruit on the sprayed vine cannot be 
computed by comparing the amount of perfect with 
abortive fruit, because some blossoms must have 
failed to form even abortive fruit, and some of the 
abortive fruits dropped before the grapes were gath- 
ered. It should be borne in mind, therefore, that the 
total loss of fruit from the spraying is not repre- 
sented in the following figures. A comparison of 
the fruit of the two vines shows the following re- 
sults : 

"1. Counting all berries, whether perfect or abor- 
tive, the average weight of a berry from the sprayed 
vine was 8.5 grains, and the average weight of a 
berry from the check vine was 17.5 grains, showing 
a difference of 106 per cent. 

"2. The amount of abortive berries was compared 
with the perfect berries of each vine, and 60 per cent 
of the fruit from the sprayed vine was abortive, 
while but 21 per cent of the fruit from the check 
vine was abortive." 

Halsted* has also made observations upon the 
influence of weather upon pollination, and finds that 
continued wet weather at blossoming time seems, in 
most cases, to lessen the setting of the fruit. 

♦Special Bull. C, N. J. Exp. Sta. (1889), and Kept, for 1889, p. 230, and 
Kept, for 1890, p. 330. 



I 



Baif) (if Bloom in(/-finie. 339 

Card* has made experiments in the spraying (to 
imitate rain) of raspberries : "It is generally sup- 
posed that rainy and cloudy weather at blossoming 
time is injurious to the fruit crop, and the ques- 
tion occurs whether frequent sprajdng with water at 
this period would produce any noticeable effect. On 
June 15, 1892, spraying was begun on Caroline, 
Cuthbert and Turner raspberries. At that time the 
(•aroline was well in bloom, while the others were 
s(iarcely beginning to bloom. The spraying was con- 
tinued until July first, two to four times each day 
when the weather was bright and pleasant, but 
omitted when there were rains to take its place. 
Showers were frequent during the period, but were 
well interspersed with bright weather and sunshine. 

"The results were entirely negative, showing no 
effect whatever from the spraying. The fruits on 
this portion of the row were just as perfect and 
abundant, and the plants appeared to suffer no more 
from fungous diseases than those not sprayed. It is 
to be noted, however, that the conditions were not 
the same as those present in continuous cloudy 
weather, for during much of this time the weather 
was bright, and insects were numerous, and continued 
working among the blossoms regardless of their being 
wet, so that opportunities for pollination were good. 
The test is of interest as showing that there need be 
no fear of interfering with pollination by spraying for 
insects or diseases, even if necessary to do it at 
blossoming time. Of course, it should not be done 

*Fred W. Card, Bull. '.7. Cornell Exp. Sta. 



340 The Principles of Frn if -growing. 

at that time, ordinarily, on account of our friends, 
the bees." 

Coote reports that peaches under glass set less 
fruit when sprayed in full bloom with either warm 
or cold water than they did when pollinated by 
means of a brush.* 

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS. 

It is impossible to give any specific method of 
procedure when it is desired to renovate an old 
and profitless orchard. It is first necessary to dis- 
cover the causes of its unprofitableness — to diagnose 
the difficulty — and then to go straight at the root 
of the evil. It must be remembered, too, that an 
old, neglected orchard cannot be expected to arrive 
at the profitable condition which trees enjoy which 
have received proper care from the beginning, no 
matter how thorough the means of recuperating it 
may be. At the best, one can only make an apol- 
ogy for long years of neglect and mistakes. It is 
probable, too, that the trees may sometimes become 
so fixed in habit that no amount of good treatment 
can make them bear satisfactorily. If the grower 
once arrives at a clear conception of the agencies 
which make for productiveness, he will readily per- 
ceive what the trouble with his orchard may be. 

In general, it may be said that the first thing 
to do to revive an old orchard is to till the land. 

♦George Coote, Bull. 34, Oregon Exp. Sta. (1895). This bulletin also con- 
tains observations on the pollen production of varieties of fruits. 



Renovating Old Orchards, 341 

This may demand a heavy trimming up of the trees 
in order to allow a team to work in it ; and in 
many of the forest -like old orchards it may be 
economy to cut out a third or half the trees at 
the start. Perhaps the roots are so high that the 
land cannot be plowed. In such case, the land may 
often be broken up in the spring, before the earth 
becomes hard, by means of spading -harrows, disc 
harrows, spring -tooth harrows, and similar vigorous 
tools. Or corn and other grain may be dropped 
freely in holes made with a crow-bar, and the hogs 
then turned in. Let them root for it! 

The earth -mulch once secured to save the mois- 
ture, it may next be necessary to apply plant -food, 
either in the form of stable manures, green crops 
or concentrated fertilizers, or in all these forms to- 
gether. 

It is probable that the trees will need heavy 
pruning. But this pruning is for the purpose of 
correcting the results of years of neglect, not for 
the purpose, directly, of making the trees bear. In 
fact, the effect of heavy pruning is apt to be in 
the very opposite direction from fruit -bearing; but it 
must be done in most old orchards to bring the trees 
back into manageable shape, to produce new and 
fresh wood for fruit -bearing, and to thin the top 
sufficiently to allow the fruit to develop to something 
like perfection of size and quality. Weak trees may 
sometimes be re - invigorated by this heavy pruning 
alone. Severe heading -in of old peach trees often 
accomplishes this. When the new wood is once 



342 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

formed and the tree has re-established its equilibrium, 
fruit -bearing may be expected to begin, if other con- 
ditions are right. 

It will next be necessary to begin hunting for 
borers and other squatters and campers. The trees 
will very likely need to be thoroughly sprayed to 
dislodge the army of hangers-on which has held 
undisputed possession of the territory for a decade 
or two. 

If the trees are of the wrong varieties and are 
still vigorous, it will probably pay to top -graft 
them, as already explained (page 298), if they are 
apples, pears, oranges, or cherries. Old and poor 
peach, apricot, plum and quince trees had better be 
pulled out. 

Why are orchards barren f — It may be suggestive 
if the matter of renovating old orchards be put in 
the form of this question and categorical answers 
be given. It will help the grower to diagnose the 
trouble, and it will impress him with the fact that 
he is the man to solve his own difficulties. The 
commonest reason why old orchards are barren is 
because they are in sod, — that is, because they are 
un tilled and unfed. There are men enough in the 
country — although they have been greatly in the 
minority — who have boldly taught that sodded or- 
chards are wrongly managed orchards. They have 
been combatted by citations of orchards which are 
in sod but are still productive. They have replied 
that in some cases, for a combination of reasons, 
orchards may do well in continuous sod, but they 



Diagnosing the Trouble. 343 

have still fallen back upon the fundamental prin- 
ciples of land management, and have said that the 
system is nevertheless wrong. Time is rapidly 
demonstrating the accuracy of their prophecies. It 
is a case in which a handful of philosophy is worth 
more than a forkful of facts. 

If one asks why orchards are barren, let him 
fill out the following synopsis by way of review of 
some of the principles which are enunciated in this 
book : 

The nature of the problem: each case must be investi- 
gated by itself; teaching must be along the line of general 
or fundamental principles, not statements of rules. The six 
general factors which determine productiveness are: 

1. The Tillage Factor.— Soil texture. Fertility as influ- 
enced by (a) fineness, (&) conditions of root-hold, (c) 
life processes, (d) air-holding capacity, (e) water-holding 
capacity. 

Sod in orchards Cover crops. 

2. The Fertility Factor.— Our conceptions of the uses 
of nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, etc., in fruit-pro- 
duction. 

3. The Pruning Factor.— The relation of pruning to wood- 
growth and fruit -growth. 

4. The Variety Factor. — (a) Unproductive varieties, (b) 
impotent varieties. 

5. The Propagation Factor.— The individuality of the tree, 
and its power to perpetuate its characteristics. 

6. The Parasite Factor.— (a) Fungi, (&) insects. Spray- 
ing (Chapter VII.). 



CHAPTER VII. 

DISEASES, INSECTS AND SPBAYING. 

In 1886, the present author wrote as follows : 
"A remedy proposed of late is to syringe the trees 
with a mixture of Paris green and water, very early 
in the season, while the young apples stand erect. 
The poison lodges in the 'blossom end' and de- 
stroys the first brood of worms. Later, when the 
apples turn downward, the poison is washed out by 
the rains. This remedy was proposed, and its en- 
tire success demonstrated, by Professor A. J. Cook, 
of the Michigan Agricultural College. A tablespoon- 
ful of poison to a gallon of water is sufficient."* 
This represented very nearly the sum of knowledge 
respecting the spraying of orchards at that time. 
Just ten years later, the writer had a part in put- 
ting before the public a manual on spraying, t which 
made a closely printed book of some four hun- 
dred pages. These contrasts will serve to show how 
rapid has been the evolution of the spraying of 
plants to combat insects and diseases. This sudden 
development of the spraying of orchards has tended 

♦"Field Notes on Apple Culture," 88. 

tLodeman, "The Spraying of Plants." This work should be consulted when 
(ull information is desired upon the history and practice of spraying. 

(844) 



Effects of Spraying. 345 

to magnify its importance out of all proportion to 
other accustomed operations of fruit-growing. The 
practice has been hailed as a positive means of mak- 
ing orchards fruitful. As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, it makes orchards fruitful only when the cause 
of unfruitfulness is incursions of insects and fungi. 
It will not correct the faults of poor tillage, nor of 
insufficient plant -food, nor of unprofitable varieties, 
nor of neglect in pruning. In other words, it is 
only one of the various elements which enter into 
successful fruit-growing. Wholly aside from its 
direct and immediate importance, spraying has had 
an emphatic secondary influence in waking up the 
horticulturist. Any movement which sets a man 
to thinking very strongly along one line is likely 
to awaken his interest in cognate subjects. So it 
happens that spraying has been one of the means 
of rapidlj^ diffusing a better knowledge of horticul- 
tural operations. Some of the directions in which 
this secondary influence of spraying is bound to 
enlarge the horticultural horizon may be stated as 
follows : 

1. The necessity of spraying calls the attention 
of the grower to the reasons for the recent incur- 
sions of pests. Spraying was unknown in his boy- 
hood days. Why is it so imperative now? This 
opens a volume of suggestion, and will lead the 
questioner to consider the fact that insects and 
fungi are constantly changing their habits from one 
plant to another, as the native plants are destroyed 
and as the area of cultivated ones is increased, and 



346 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

that the continuing commerce with all parts of the 
world constantly exposes us to new dangers. Pests 
which have latterly broken out with fury have been 
breeding in unobserved numbers in the neglected 
plantations for many years. The ideals of the fruit- 
grower are also higher now than they were a few 
years ago. Competition has increased, and the 
smallest blemish on a fruit is enough to throw it 
out of a first-class article, whilst a few years since 
it might have passed without comment. 

2. The necessity of spraying is bound to force 
new ideals upon the grower. Those persons who 
grow in a large way for the general and more or 
less staple markets will find themselves casting about 
for those varieties which are least susceptible to 
disease and insect injury and which, therefore, need 
the smallest amount of attention in the way of 
sprays . 

3. On the other hand, the protection which spray- 
ing affords will tend to bring in many of those 
good old varieties which, like the Virgalieu pear, 
have almost disappeared from cultivation because of 
disease. Those persons who are growing special kinds 
of fruit for particular or personal markets will select 
the varieties of ideal qualities almost independently 
of the liability to insect or fungous attacks, because 
they are now assured that these attacks can be 
overcome. On the one hand, therefore, spraying will 
force the selection of varieties which do not demand 
this extra care and treatment ; and, upon the other 
hand, it will afford the grower of fruits for dessert 



i 



Effects of Spraying. 347 

and home use the protection which he has heretofore 
not enjoyed. 

4. Spraying is bound to force a closer study of 
the companionships and inter-relations of crops, 
fungi and insects. It will teach the farmer to ob- 
serve that certain pests follow the round of certain 
crops, and that when he breaks such a rotation he 
also lessens the liability of attack. It will also force 
him to the use of shorter rotations, for it is a very 
nimble insect or fungus which can keep pace with 
a lively and resourceful farmer. He will come to 
learn that the best treatment of the anthracnose on 
raspberries may be a short rotation rather than 
spraying. In fact, the best treatment may be a 
combination of both ; but he will find that if he 
reduces the number of crops to two or at most to 
three, and then has plantations coming on in other 
land, he will suffer comparatively little. The same 
suggestion is extremely applicable to the cultivation 
of strawberries. 

5. Spraying will take its place along with till- 
age, fertilizing, pruning, and the other cardinal opera- 
tions of the fruit plantation. 

6. Spraying is bound to force better care, in order 
that the crop may repay the extra cost of the treat- 
ment. The advent of the potato -bug has no doubt 
exercised a very pronounced influence in improving 
the cultivation of the potato, and it is probably not 
too much to hope that the apple -scab is bound to 
revolutionize apple - gi-owing in the northeastern 
states . 



348 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

7. The necessity of spraying must create a greater 
watchfulness on the part of the fruit-grower for new 
pests, for these pests are all the time appearing from 
foreign countries, from adjacent states or geograph- 
ical regions, or from the wild. 

8, Inasmuch as every new subject of inquiry 
awakens new thoughts and expands one's sympathies, 
so it becomes a means of enlarging and educating 
the man. A concentrated invasion of the army -worm 
is one of the very best means of waking up any 
farming community and of setting every man, woman 
and child to asking questions of every passer-by, every 
agricultural editor and teacher, and experiment sta- 
tion. The good effects of such an invasion are likely 
to last for a number of years. It is surprising, as 
one thinks of it, how easily people are scared by a 
bug! A strange insect, which perhaps does not 
weigh a grain, will set a whole community of able- 
bodied men agog, and may cause as much down- 
right fear and discussion as a political revolution. 

There are three general types of difficulties which 
are germane to the discussion 11 this chapter. A 
classification of these troubles might be made as fol- 
lows : 

1. Attacks by insects. 

(a) The injuries of those insects which eat 
or chew the parts of the plant, and which, 
therefore, are killed by the application of poi- 
sons like Paris green. Such insects are the 
whole tribe of caterpillars, worms and beetles. 



Classification of Diseases. 349 

(b) Attacks of insects which suck their food, 
and which are, therefore, destroyed by caustic 
applications which injure the bodies of the 
pests. All the tribes of plant -lice and scale 
insects belong here, and for these the kerosene 
emulsion, resin washes, and the like, are the 
specifics. 

2. Parasitic fungous diseases, such as the apple- 
scab, black -rot and mildew of the grape, leaf -blight 
of the plum and pear, black -knot, and the like. 
These diseases are characterized by definite spots, 
discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less 
scattered over the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. 
As a rule, the leaves and fruits which are attacked 
have a tendency to drop from the tree. The gen- 
eral treatment for these diseases is to spray with 
some fungicidal mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture 
or the ammoniacal carbonate of copper. The treat- 
ment is useful in proportion as it is applied early 
and thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into 
the tissues of the host-plant, it is difficult, if not 
impossible, to kill it. If, however, the fungicide is 
upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may 
not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does 
obtain a foothold, it is probable, however, that the 
spray will check its spread by preventing the devel- 
opment of its external parts. 

3. The physiological and bacterial diseases, or 
those which are termed constitutional troubles. In 
these cases, there are rarely any definite spots, as 
in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire 



350 The Principles of Fnrit -growing. 

leaf, or even the entire plant, or a large part of 
it, shows a general weakening and disease, as if 
there were some cutting off of the accustomea 
source of nourishment. Such diseases are very likely 
to be seen in a general yellowing and death of the 
leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main veins 
and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is 
one which affects the entire leaf, and not any par- 
ticular part of it. In general, there is a tendency 
for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up 
and hang on the tree for a time. The peach yel- 
lows and pear blight are diseases of this kind. 
There are no specific treatments for troubles of this 
sort. Thej must be approached by what physicians 
<'all prophylaxis, — that is, by methods of sanitation 
and prevention. The diseased plants or parts are 
<ait away and burned. All those conditions which 
seem to favor the development of the disease are 
removed. Varieties which are particularly susceptible 
are discarded. Careful management in matters of 
this sort is often much more important than any 
attempt at specific treatment. 

Before taking up a discussion of spraying, it 
may be said that the best treatment for borers and 
similar pests is to watch the plants carefully, and 
to dig the insects out at least twice every year. 
In grounds which are kept in clean tillage, such 
insects are rarely as troublesome as they are in 
neglected areas. This is both because the insects 
find places of lodgment in neglected orchards, and 
because the fruit-grower is so seldom present that 



Hoot Troubles 



351 



he does not discover them in 
season. The various protec- 
tive washes which are ad- 
vised for keeping borers out 
of trees are of very doubtful 
efficiency. 

The roots of fruit trees 
and brambles are very likely 
to be affected with large tuber- 
like swellings or galls, which 
have been the subject of a 
good deal of uneasiness in 
various parts of the country. 
One of these is shown in 
Fig. 64. So far as known, 
these galls are not conta- 
gious, and the amount of harm 
which they do has probably 
been overstated. The root- 
knot of the southern states 
and of greenhouses is a 
wholly different trouble, and 
is the work of a nematode 
worm. There is also a root 
swelling or gall on raspber- 
ries, due to the work of an 
insect. The nematode galls 
are commonly smaller and 
softer swellings, and occur on 
the younger or smaller roots, ^^^- ^- ^°''^ «f*" °^ raspberry, 

.. *= ' (Prom Bull. 100, ComeU Exp. 

and appear not to occur in sta ) 




362 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



the open in regions where the ground freezes 
deep. This subject of the root -galls has been 
fully gone over by various writers, and a summary 
of the subject is presented in Bulletin 117 of the 
Cornell Experiment Station (although this subject is 
by no means well understood), from which the fol- 
lowing epitome is clipped: "The conclusion of the 
whole matter, then, as we now 
understand it, is that these root- 
galls are not the work of a par- 
asite, but are a mal- forma- 
tion following some injury of 
the root, or some uncongenial 
condition in soil or treatment. 
The galls may seriously interfere 
with the nutrition of the plant, 
in many cases causing it to be- 
come weak and sickly. It is 
probable that the trouble is not 
communicable, and that cutting 
off the gall averts further trouble 
from that source. As a precau- 
tionary measure, however, we 
much prefer to plant only trees with perfectly clean 
and normal roots." 

The injuries caused by hail are very often con- 
founded with those wrought by borers and other 
pests, and it is the delight of many persons to en- 
deavor to puzzle the experimenters and teachers with 
specimens of such work. Plum limbs injured by 
hail -stones are shown natural size in Fig. 65. 




Fig. 65. Injuries by hail- 
stones. 



Bagging Fruits. 353 

When it is desired to secure extra fine fruit, it is 
a good plan to tie up the fruits in paper bags. This 
keeps away the insects and fungi (although the white- 
ness of the bags is likely to attract thieves at night), 
and the fruit is apt to ripen earlier, and to be of 
higher quality because of the warmth which the bag 
gives. If it is desired to bring out the blossoms of a 
tree very early in the spring, it may be done by 
tying grocers' bags upon the spurs when the buds 
first begin to swell. The bagging of grapes is a fre- 
quent practice when exhibition or test specimens are 
desired. It is customary to pin the bags upon the 
clusters when the grapes are a third to a half grown. 
Bags made of mosquito netting are very useful later 
in the season, when it is desired to secure the full 
color of highly -colored fruit. 



1. Spraying is only one of the requisites to suc- 
cess in fruit- raising. — Spraying has come into use 
so quickly, and so much of the attention of teachers 
and experiments has been given to it, that many 
people have come to look upon it as the means of 
salvation of our orchards. If spraying is to have 
the effect of obscuring or depreciating the impor- 
tance of good cultivation and fertilizing, then it 
might better never have come into being. Trees 
must grow before they can bear, and this growth 
depends upon food and proper conditions of soil, 

* Largely adapted from Bvill. 101, Cornell Exp. Sta. 
X 



354 TiiP Principles of Fruit-growing. 

more than it does upon the accident of immunity 
from insects and fungi. There are four fundamental 
operations upon which all permanent success in most 
kinds of orchard culture depend, and their importance 
lies in something: like the following order, — tillage, 
fertilizing, pruning, spraying. Spraying is the last to 
be understood, but this fact should not obscure the 
importance of the other three. 

2. Spraying is an insurance. — There are always 
elements of risk in the growing of fruit. The chief 
of these is frost, a difficulty which can never be 
completely under our control. The second great ele- 
ment of risk is the injury wrought by insects and 
fungi, and the greater part of this injury can be 
averted by the sprays. Now, it is impossible to 
foretell by any considerable length of time, if any or 
all of the difficulties which are liable to harass the 
fruit -raiser will actually appear. One does not know 
if his buildings will burn, yet he insures them. We 
know that in four years out of five, some serious 
injury of insects or fungi may be confidently ex- 
pected, and it is the part of wisdom to insure against 
it. The year 1894 was a season of remarkable in- 
vasion of apple- scab fungus in New York, and those 
persons who sprayed their orchards thoroughly had 
phenomenal results. These experiences, aided by 
many publications upon the subject, so advertised 
the value of the sprays that much more spraying 
was done in the state the next year than ever before. 
But it so happened, probably because of the dry 
spring, that comparatively . few invasions of enemies 



tSpnii/ Krrni Year. 355 

occurred the next year ; and the sprays generally 
gave small results. There arose, therefore, a consid- 
erable indifference or even opposition to spraying, 
which may be regretted when years of serious inva- 
sion arise. It is a common fault with farmers that 
ihey draw their conclusions from the behavior or ex- 
periences of each recurring season, and do not con- 
sider the aggregate results of a series of years. 
Every operation should rest upon some fundamental 
reason or philosophy, rather than upon any single 
half -understood experience. 

3. Spraying is of some value every year, upon 
apples, pears, plums, quinces, grapes, and various other 
fruits. — Even in years of great immunity, nearlj' all 
sprayed orchards carry a better foliage than those 
which are untreated. So, wholly aside from the idea 
of insuring against risk, it is advisable to spray for 
those insects which are more or less abundant ever\ 
year. Some insects and diseases appear late in tht 
season, so that in any year the spray may be needed 
at some epoch in the season. It is, perhaps, useless 
to urge people to spray their orchards. Those per- 
sons who will not spare the trees this much of their 
attention Avill not be likely to do nuieh in the way of 
tilling and fertilizing. One must grasp the entire 
body of principles of orcliard management before he 
can hope for permanent rew^irds. 

4. Sj)ray thoroughly, or not at all. — Fully half 
the spraying which is commonly done is a waste 
of time and material. Squirting a few quarts of 
water at a tree as one hurries past it, is not spray- 



356 



TJie Principles of Fry if -growing. 



ing. A tree is thoroughly and honestly sprayed when 
it is wet all over, on all the branches and on both 
sides of all the leaves. An insect or a fungus is 
not killed until the poison is placed where the pest 
is. Bugs do not search for the poison, in order 
that they may accommodate the orchardist by com- 
mitting suicide. The one spot which is not sprayed 
may be the very place where a bud -moth is getting 

his dinner. On the other 
hand, there are manj^ 
fruit-growers who spray 
with the greatest thor- 
oughness and accuracy, 
and they are the one? 
who, in the long run, 
will get the fruit. 

5. Prepare for next 
yearns work during the 
ivinter. — Secure nozzles 
and pumps, and fix up 
the wagons. It is especially important that the 
wagons be handy. In verj' low orchards, a low truck 
may be needed, and in some cases a stone -boat is 
best; but most orchards will need some kind of a 
high rig, to enable the operator to reach the tops of 
the trees. Fig. 66 is a rig used by T. G. Yeomans 
& Sons, Walworth, N. Y. The tank holds 300 gallons. 
The pump is placed on the front of the rig (in the 
seat -rack), and one man drives and pumps. The 
horses are stopped at every tree. Two leads of hose 
are used, and two men stand on the rear platform 




Fig, 66. Rack for spraying rig. 



Spraying Bigs. 



357 






V V --; 







txy^^m 



^ ^\/-~ 



and direct the nozzle. These men have ample space, 

and the railing gives them security. A boy has 

been employed until recently to agitate the liquid 

with a large hoe. These three men and the boy cost 

$5.50 per day, and they can spray thoroughly about 

five acres of full-grown apple trees in a day. An 

automatic agitator has now been employed in place 

of the boy, with good 

results. Another 

good rig is that 

shown in Fig. 67, 

used by A. H. 

Dutton, Youngstown, 

N. Y. Many other 

efficient spraying 

outfits are in use, 

but these two will 

serve to illustrate 

the kind of work 

which is needed to 

be done. 

The greater num- 
ber of fruit-growers 
use an ordinary 
wagon, with box or 

rack, and a single 50 -gallon barrel ; but if one has 
much spraying to do, it is generally economy to 
use a larger tank, especially if water has to be 
hauled some distance ; and more thorough work 
can be done in old orchards if the operator is 
elevated above the barrel. The use of long pieces 





Fig. 67. Rig for spraying. 



358 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



of half -inch gas -pipe with the nozzle attached to 
the end, is advisable when one is working in the 
tops of the trees, but they are apt to be a nui- 
sance if one works 
from the ground. 
They are awkward 
if more than ten 
feet long. We gen- 
erally prefer to use 
a bamboo fishing- 
pole, and secure the 
hose to it near its 
upper end, letting 
the lower part of 
the pole remain free. 
Most operators have 

Fig. 68. Handy outfit for bushes and small insufficient hoSC. 

trees. 

For work in old or- 
chards, the run should be at least fifteen feet long. 

For yards and ornamental plants, a cart -like rig, 
like that shown in Fig. 68, is handy and efficient, 
and others are shown in Fig. 72. A home-made rig 
for spraying strawberries and potatoes is seen in 
Fig. 69. It is simply a barrel pump mounted on 
wheels, with three Vermorel nozzles rigged on the 
tail-board, so as to cover as many rows of plants. 

6'. The style of pump and nozzle to be used de- 
pends almost ivholly upon the particular kind of work 
to he done.^ — The reader will now see that the advice 




*The reader should consult Lodemaus "Spraying of Plants" for mor* 
specific advice on this subject. 



i 



Spraying Outfits. 



359 



as to machinery must depend upon the specific pur- 
pose for which the appliances are to be used. Appa- 
i-atus which was devised a few years ago for the 
distribution of Paris green may be of no value for 
the application of such a thick compound as the Bor- 
deaux mixture. Whatever the outfit selected, the 
pump should be strong and powerful, with hard brass 
working parts, and capable of throwing much liquid 
with great force. In respect to nozzles, it may be 
said that there is no one kind which is best for all 
purposes. It is desii-able that the liquid should reach 
the plant in the form of a very fine mist ; but it 
is just as important that the nozzle should have the 
power of throwing the liquid to the desired point. 
In other words, there are two elements to be con- 
sidered, — the nozzle must have carrying power and 
delivering power. A fine mist at the orifice of the 
nozzle is of no use 
when the nozzle is 
thirty feet short of the 
bug. With many of 
the modern devices, the 
man who holds the hose 
in spraying rigs may 
stand eight or nine feet 
above the ground and 
he may use a pole 
twelve to fifteen feet in 

length, which will elevate his nozzle something like 
twenty -five feet from the ground; but many of our 
apple trees are fifty and sixty feet high. It will 




Fig. 69, Outfit for spraying straw- 
berries and potatoes. 



360 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

therefore be seen that the liquid must carry itself 
twenty -five to thirty feet beyond the nozzle. For 
such purposes, a nozzle which distributes the liquid 
in a spray directly from its orifice is of small use. 
A nozzle must be had which throws a more or 
less solid stream, and the stream should break up 
when it reaches its destination. It will therefore be 
seen that it is practically impossible to secure a 
single nozzle which is best for all purposes. The 
grower should have at least two styles, one for 
short range and one for long range. The Cyclone 
types of nozzles are generally best when a very 
fine spray is desired for short range (consult 
Fig. 70). 

Remarks similar to the above may be made for 
pumps ; that is, there is no one best pump. We 
might divide all pumps into two general classes, — 
those which deliver the liquid by force of gravity. 

Note. The pictures of spraying machinery (Figs. 70 to 75, pages 362 to 367) 
are inserted only for the purpose of familiarizing the reader with a number of 
the different types of inventions which are useful in the work. They are not 
inserted for the purpose of recommending any of the devices, and there are 
many other machines, which are not shown in the engravings, which are 
equally as good. 

Fig. 70. 1, 2, Cyclone Nozzles. 3, 4, Vermorel Nozzles. 5, Double Vermorel. 
6, Longshank Vermorel. 7, Bordeaux Nozzle. 8, Undersprayer (Boekel). 9, Y 
for two nozzles. 10, Carnation Nozzle (Gould). 12, same, with pole attachment. 
11, Masson Nozzle (Gould). 13, McGowen. 14, Graduated Spray. 15, 16, Lilly 
(Rumsey) ; 18, same, with long tube. 17, Calla (Gould). 19, Boss (Field Force 
Pump Co.). 20, 21. 22, Nixou Nozzles. 23, 24, Winkle Nozzle. 

Fig. 71. 1, Galloway Knapsack. 2, Garfield (Field Force Pump Co.). 3, 
Deming Kerosene Emulsion Knapsack. 4, Eclipse (Morrill & Morley). 5, Ex- 
celsior (Stahl). 6, Dandy (Rumsey). 7, Douglas emulsion. 8, Knapsack at 
work. 9, Obsolete type of pump on a knapsack tank. 10, 11, 12, Wonder Pumps 
(Lewis), 



Pumps and Nozzles. 361 

as many of the potato sprayers do, and those which 
deliver it by the force of the pump. We have now 
come to believe that the force of gravity is not 
sufficient to do the work well, especiall}' when Bor- 
deaux mixture is to be used. Of the pump machines, 
there are several kinds, as those which derive their 
force from the suction of a piston and valves, and 
those which work from the force of compressed air. 
The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 70-75, pages 
362-367) will show the reader some of the forms of 
pumps which are now manufactured, and will per- 
haps enable him to make an intelligent choice for 
his purpose. It may be said that knapsack pumps 
are very efficient, not only because they are power- 
ful for their size but also because they enable the 
operator to stand very close to his work ; but they 
are not adapted to work upon trees nor, in fact, 
upon large areas in this country, because labor is 
too high priced. For small areas, for experiment 



Fig. 72. 1, Eureka Knapsack (Boekel). 2, Success Bucket Pump (Deming). 
3, Commou Bucket Pump. 4, Dart Bucket Pump (Gould). 5, Success Kerosene 
Bucket Pump (Deming). 6, Aquanette (Douglas). 7, Double-acting Aquanette 
(Douglas). 8, Handy cart rig. 9, Cart Sprayer (Field Force Pump Co.). 10, 
Economy Garden Engine. 

Fig. 73. 1, Barrel Pump (Field Force Pump Co.). 2, Barrel Pump (Douglas). 
3, Columbian (Douglas). 4, Double-acting Pump (Gould). 5, Nixon Tripod 
Pump. 6, McGowen's Automatic Poison Injector. 7, Clock Pump, and Dash 
Agitator (Gould). 8, Bean Pneumatic Pump. 9, Myer's Lever Bucket Pump. 
10, Barrel Agitator (Gould). 11, Maud S. Pump (Maud S. Co.). 

Fig. 74. 1, Empire (Field Force Pump Co.). 2, Eclipse (Morrill & Morley).' 
3, Pomona (Gould). 4, Double Cylinder (Rumsey). 5, Geiger Pump. 6, Florida 
(Rumsey). 7, Columbia (Columbiana Co.). 

Fig. 75. I.Victor Outfit (Field Force Pump Co.). 2, Caswell Sled Sprayer 
3, Caswell Geared Spraj'er. 4, Wagon Outfit (Morrill & Morley). 5, Mounted 
Barrel Sprayer. 6, Eureka Tank Outfit (Morrill & Morley) . 




Fig. 70. Narious types of spraying uozzles. 




Kuapsack aud ayriuge pumps 




Fig. T2. Garden sprayers of various patterns. 




Pumps for heavy orchard work. 




Fig. 74. Barrel outtits tor heavy woik. 




Fig. 75. Power and tank outfits. 



368 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

purposes, and the like, they are exceedingly useful 
and handy. The syringe and bucket pumps are 
very efficient for work upon a small scale, and 
especially when it is desired to be extra thorough. 
The greatest difficulty with the bucket pump is that 
the amount of material which can be carried is very 
small. The power sprayers (those which work from 
the wheel of the vehicle) are useful for vineyards, 
dwarf pears and low -growing plants ; but, as a rule, 
they are not adapted to large orchard trees, because 
enough liquid cannot be thrown whilst the machine 
is passing a tree to thoroughly spray it. For very 
large areas and very tall trees (as street trees) steam- 
power sprayers are coming into use. 

7. The farmer should know what he wants to kill 
before he begins to spray. — It is common to find a 
man who is going at spraying with enthusiasm, but 
who cannot explain a single definite object which 
he has in view. He simply knows upon general 
principles that spraying is useful. To such a man, 
spraying is spraying, whether he uses Paris green, 
or Bordeaux, or both, or neither one; and his results 
are about equal to his knowledge. There is no 
longer an excuse for such ignorance, for all the lead- 
ing insects and fungi have received more or less 
exact treatment in the publications of the experiment 
stations. The state of knowledge is far in advance 
of the state of practice. Many fruit-growers demand 
such elementary instruction as this: 

The arsenites (Paris green and London purple) 
are used to kill all larvae or worms, and all those 



When to Spray. 369 

insects which chew the leaves or shoots, — such as 
the codlin-moth, bud -moth, canker-worm, potato - 
beetle, tent -caterpillar, and the like. Kerosene emul- 
sion* is used for scale -insects and plant -lice. Bor- 
deaux mixture and ammoniacal carbonate of copper 
are used to prevent the attacks of fungous parasites, 
as apple -scab, leaf -blight of the pear, quince and 
plum, potato -blight, and such like. Bordeaux is the 
better all-round fungicide, but the copper carbonate 
solution t does not discolor the fruit, and may there- 
fore be used if very late sprayings are necessary. 

The times and seasons of spraying depend entirely 
upon the enemies which it is desired to reach, and 
upon the weather. 

8. The time to spray must be determined for each 
particular case. — The grower himself must decide 
when and how often to spray, because he should 

* KEROSENE EMULSION. 

Hard soap % pound 

Boiling water (preferably soft writer) 1 gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene, and churn with a pump 
for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 4 to 25 times before applying. Use strong emulsion 
(diluted 4 to 9 times) in winter for scale insects. 

Some of the recent pumps emulsify kerosene and water, and make a very 
efficient spraying material. One part of oil to 4 or 5 of water is safe on foliage, 
particularly in sunny weather. 

t AMMONIACAL COPPER CARBONATE. 

Copper carbonate 1 oimce 

Ammonia, enough to dissolve the copper. 

Before making the solution, the ammonia should be prepared as follows : 
Use 26° ammonia, and dilute with 7 to 8 volumes of water. Then gradually 
add the necessary amount to the copper carbonate until all is dissolved. It is 
best treated in large bottles, and in them it will keep indefinitely. Dilute with 
9 or 10 gallons of water. For same purposes as the Bordeaux mixture. 

Y 



370 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



know what enemies he desu-es to reach. If he has 
the bud -moth, he should spray with the first swell- 
ing of the buds, and if he has the plum -scale he 
should spray in the winter. But, leaving the special 
insects aside, it is safe to say that for the two staple 
enemies — the apple - scab and the codlin - moth — at 
least two sprayings should be given. It is not yet 

clearly proved that 
spraying when the 
tree is dormant has 
any appreciable ef- 
fect in destroying the 
apple-scab fungus. 
As a general state- 
ment one may say, 
spray twice upon ap- 
ples and pears, once 
just as the fruit-buds 
break open but be- 
fore the flowers ex- 
pand (Fig. 76), and again just as the last blossoms fall. 
In both cases, use a combination of Bordeaux mix- 
ture and Paris green. The first spraying is for the 
scab fungus in particular, and for this the Bordeaux 
is used ; but the Paris green will most likely be of 
service in destroying various leaf -eating insects. The 
second spraying is for the codlin -moth in particular, 
and for this the Paris green is used ; but the Bor- 
deaux mixture will still be needed for the apple -scab 
and other fungi. Whether or not it is necessary to 
spray again will depend largely upon the season. 




Fig. 76. Showing when apple trees are 
ready for the first spraying. 



stock Solutions. 371 

The operator must watch matters closely, and spra,y 
when he needs to do so, or when he is in doubt. 
Two sprayings are sufficient for the codlin-moth, and 
three are generallj^ sufficient for the apple -scab. 
These two sprayings constitute the insurance which 
has been mentioned ; thereafter, the grower will be 
able to see more definitely what is needed. These 
remarks illustrate the nature of the questions which 
the fruit-grower must consider. 

At any time when the tree is in growth, Paris 
green or London purple should l^e used with lime, 
or, better, with Bordeaux mixture, to prevent injury 
to the foliage. One pound of Paris green to two 
hundred gallons of water is the most serviceable gen- 
eral formula for that material ; and to this a pound 
or two of lime may be added. A pound of Paris 
green (or London purple) may be added to two hun- 
dred gallons of Bordeaux mixture. If the Paris green 
is made into a paste with a little water, it mixes bet- 
ter in the barrel. 

9. Prepare stock solutions for the Bordeaux mix- 
ture,'^ rather than to make each batch in the quantities 

♦normal OB 1.6 PER CENT BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 

Copper sulfate ( blue vitriol) 6 pounds 

Stone lime 4 pounds 

Water 40-50 gallons 

Dissolve the vitriol by putting it in a piece of coarse burlap and hanging 
this in at least six gallons of water, so that the bottom of the bag just rests 
in the water. Use a wooden pail or tub ; vitriol eats tin. Pour the vitriol 
solution into the spraying barrel and fill the barrel about half full with water. 
Slake the lime and dilute it to make 10 to 15 gallons of milk of lime. Pour 
this into the barrel through a strainer and add water to make 40 to 50 gallons 
of Bordeaux. The formula 4 pounds of vitriol and 4 pounds of lime to make 
40 to 50 gallons of Bordeaux is apparently equally efificient. If Bordeaux is to 
be used on peach foliage, apply it at one-half the ordinary strength. 



372 The Principles of Fruit -(/rowing. 

called for by the formula. — The sulfate of copper may 
be put into solution and kept in this condition in- 
definitely, ready for use. A simple method is to 
dissolve forty or fifty pounds of sulfate in as many 
gallons of water, pulverizing the material and hang- 
ing it in a coffee -sack in. the top of the barrel. 
A gallon of water, therefore, means a pound of 
sulfate. The lime may also be slaked and kept in 
readiness for use. Slake it into the creamy condi- 
tion familiar to masons, cover lightly with water, 
and then close the box or vessel to prevent the 
water from evaporating. When making the Bordeaux 
mixture, pour the requisite quantity of the stock 
solution of sulfate of copper into the barrel, and 
then dilute with four or five times the quantity of 
water. Now add the lime, and then add enough 
water to satisfy the formula. If the ferrocyanide 
test is used, place a spoonful of the mixture in a 
saucer or plate, and add a drop of the test solu- 
tion. If a red color appears, the mixture needs 
more lime. If the test solution is added directl\' 
to a tank or barrel of the mixture, the color re- 
action is apt to be lost in the mass. An excess 
of lime ensures the safety of the mixture. 

10. Hoiv can one tell if soluble arsenic is present 
in Paris green f — It is the soluble arsenic which 
burns the foliage. This is present in London pur- 
ple, but good Paris green should have little of it. 
Farmers are always asking how they can determine 
if Paris green contains soluble arsenic. This may 
be determined by the use of the sulfur test. This 



Testing Paris Green. 373 

test consists in adding sulfuret of hydrogen to a 
solution of the poison, when, if arsenic is pres- 
ent, a yellow precipitate (or sediment) will be thrown 
down. 

In a bottle holding five or six ounces, place a 
quarter of a teaspoonful of Paris green. Add water 
until the bottle is nearly full ; shake well, and then 
allow the material to settle. The clear liquid which 
remains on top will contain what soluble arsenic 
may be present. Carefully turn off this clear liquid 
into a long, slender bottle, or test-tube, add two or 
three drops of muriatic or sulfuric acid, then add 
a tablespoonful or more of the solution of sulfuret 
of hydrogen. If any arsenic is present in the clear 
liquid, a yellow discoloration will at once appear, 
and if the liquid is allowed to stand for a few 
minutes, patches or grains of a sand -like material 
will settle to the bottom. This yellow precipitate 
is sulfide of arsenic. If very little soluble arsenic 
is present, the sulfuret solution should be warm 
when used, for the reaction is then more delicate. 
The sulfuret is easily made by anyone who has had 
even an elementary instruction in chemistry, by add- 
ing sulfuric acid to iron pyrites. 

This sulfuretted hydrogen is not a commercial 
preparation, but it is present in all sulfur mineral 
water, and the water sometimes gives the test. One 
can make sure of the presence of this material, 
for its odor is strong and offensive. It is the odor 
of spoiled eggs. If mineral water is used, it should 
be strong and fresh, and about equal in quantity 



374 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

to the arsenic solution ; and even then only a 
faint amber discoloration may appear, because of 
the small amount of sulfur in the water. The min- 
eral water test, therefore, is practically out of the 
question. 

This test of arsenic determines only the fact 
that soluble arsenic is or is not present. It does 
not determine how much soluble arsenic there may 
be ; although the greater or less amount of the 
yellow color on precipitation will afford a compara- 
tive idea of the amount present in any two or 
more samples. 

It has already been advised to use lime with 
Paris green or London purple for the purpose of 
taking up the soluble arsenic, by the formation of 
arsenite of lime. If this is done, or if the Bor- 
deaux mixture is used with the arsenites, it will 
not matter if the poison contains soluble arsenic. 

11. Row can one determine if Paris green is 
pure? — It sometimes happens that material which is 
obtained as Paris green contains no arsenic. Chrome 
green maj^ be sold instead. If the material is pure 
Paris green, it will quickly and completely dissolve 
in common strong ammonia, giving a beautiful, rich, 
dark blue, clear liquid, whilst any of the compounds 
which would ordinarily be substituted for Paris green 
on account of their color and texture, will not be- 
have in this manner in ammonia. Any insoluble 
residue is impurity. Chrome green will not dissolve 
in ammonia. 

1^. What becomes of the arsenic when it falls upon 



Arsenic in the Soil. 375 

the soil? — With the action of the rains and the fall- 
ing of the leaves, most of the arsenic which is 
applied to trees finally reaches the soil. What then 
becomes of it ? If lime has been used with the 
spray, the arsenic will be insoluble when it falls 
upon the soil. It is possible that the organic acids 
in the soil, and also carbonic acid, may dissolve some 
of the arsenic, but it would be almost surely made 
immediately insoluble again by combination with lime 
or other soil constituents. If soluble arsenic is placed 
on the soil, it probably almost immediately goes into 
insoluble combinations, and remains where it was 
placed unless slightly washed down by mere mechan- 
ical means. Now, some plants appear to have the 
power to take up very minute quantities of arsenic 
and still thrive — probably so minute that the nicest 
chemical test can scarcely discover it, — but any appre- 
ciable quantity of soluble arsenic in the soil quickly 
destroys the roots. If, therefore, the grass and other 
plants under sprayed trees continue to live, there 
need be no fear that the arsenic will injure the soil. 
A study of the destination of arsenic which has 
been applied to the soil in the form of Paris green 
was made at the Cornell Station (Bulletin 101), from 
which the following conclusions were drawn: "The 
gist of the whole matter then, if we may generalize 
from these tests, is that the arsenites do not leach 
from the soil. They remain where they fall, the 
same as sand does, and are carried down only when 
there are crevices or other openings in the soil, and 
they then go down as insoluble compounds, and to 



376 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

a slight extent, by the mere mechanical action of 
the water. It is really remarkable that sand was 
such a perfect filter as to hold the great quantity 
of arsenic above a depth of three inches for over 
four months. If the soil in either experiment had 
been a homogenous subsoil, where the sun could not 
have cracked or checked it, it is fair to conclude 
that no arsenic could have penetrated it."* 

Summary. — The fruit-grower may desire to have 
a very brief epitome of some of the cardinal sug- 
gestions touching spraying : 

1. Spraying is only one of several means or opera- 
tions which the pomologist must master if he aspires 
to the greatest and most uniform success. Other 
fundamentally important requisites are tilling, fertil- 
izing and pruning. 

2. Spraying is not necessary to successful results 
every year, but inasmuch as the farmer cannot fore- 
tell the need of the operation, he should spray as 
a matter of insurance. 

3. Spraying is almost sure to be of some benefit 
every year, particularly upon apple, pear, plum and 
quince trees, and upon grape vines. 

4. Spraying is of little consequence unless care- 
fully and honestly done. The spray must actually 
reach every point which it is intended to protect. 

5. Prepare for the year's campaign during the 
previous winter, by reading, the last teachings, and 

*For auother discussion of this subject, and of the destination of copper 
in the soil, see Lodeman, "The Spraying of Plants," 231-237. 



Summary. ^11 

by completing pumps and appliances. Give particular 
attention to a convenient wagon outfit. 

6. The Bordeaux mixture need not be made up 
at each using in the exact numbers of the formula. 
The copper sulfate may be permanently dissolved in 
water and the lime may be slaked. When the mix- 
ture is prepared, the stock solution of vitriol is di- 
luted, the lime added, and the tank filled to the 
required amount. 

7. Spraying is of small account unless the opera- 
tor understands precisely what he sprays for. 

8. The time to spray is when the operation is 
needed to protect the plant. This will vary, there- 
fore, with every season and every different pest. In 
general, apples and pears need spraying twice, first 
when the fruit -buds open, but before the flowers 
expand, and again when the blossoms fall. 

9. The presence of soluble arsenic in Paris green 
may be determined by a test with sulfuret of hy- 
drogen . 

10. Pure Paris green dissolves in ammonia, giv- 
ing a rich, deep blue liquid. 

Note. — Home-made arseuites of lime and soda are now used in some regions 
Either can be used with Bordeaux mixture. When used with water, it is safer 
to add freshly slaked lime. 

Arsenite of lime is made by boiling one pound of white arsenic in two to four 
quarts of water until it is dissolved, then use this arsenic solution to slake two 
pounds of good lime, adding water if necessary to slake it; when slaked, add water 
enough to make two gallons of this stock mixture. This may be kept in a tight 
vessel and used as desired. Thoroughly stir the material before using. For most 
insects one quart of the above to forty gallons of water will be sufficient. 

Arsenite of soda. The arsenic (one pound) may also be boiled with four 
pounds of sal soda crystals in two gallons of water until dissolved, and this boIu- 
tion used in the same manner (with lime). 



CHAPTER VIII. 

HARVESTING AND MARKETING FRUIT. 

Although the management of the business or 
commercial side of fruit-growing — the importance of 
which is urged in the first chapter — is very largely 
a matter of personal temperament, nevertheless a 
few general remarks by way of suggestion may be 
given to the subject. The business part of fruit- 
growing is chiefly concerned with the broad subject 
of marketing the fruit, which may be considered 
under the four heads of picking, packing, storing 
and shipping. The actual selling of the product is 
an enterprise which belongs rather to the merchant- 
man than to the fruit-grower. 

PICKING FRUITS. 

When to pick. — Just when and now the fruit 
should be picked for best market results depends 
very largely upon the species or variety of fruit, 
and greatly, also, upon the distance to which it is 
to be shipped. The closer and better the market, 
the riper the fruit should be when it is taken from 
the plant. If one is fortunate enough to have a 
special or personal market, delivering the fruit to 

(378) 



When Fruit is Fit to Pick. 379 

the consumer direct, then he can hope to retain 
this market only by sending in the products in the 
very finest dessert condition. Such consumers are 
generally willing to pay a sufficient extra price 
for the advantage of having the fruit taken from 
the plant when it is in its highest state of edible 
qualit}'. Most serious mistakes are constantly made 
in the picking of blackberries, for example. It is 
ordinarily considered that when the berries are 
black they are ripe, but such is not the case. 
They are fully ripe only when they shake from the 
bushes readily, and when they are soft and free 
from sharp acidity. In this condition blackberries 
can be handled direct to the consumers in the 
local market which is only a few miles away ; but 
they could not be shipped by rail. The strawberry 
is ordinarily picked for market when only a portion 
of the berry is really ripe, and when the organic 
acids are still too sharp and austere for the des- 
sert. A strawberry which has a green or white tip 
is not 3'et in fit condition to pick, if one is ex- 
pecting to reach a really good market. 

With the tree -fruits, it may be said that in 
general the samples keep longest when they are 
picked greenest, but they suffer thereby in point of 
quality. There are no well-marked lines between 
greenness or immaturity, ripeness or full maturity, 
and over maturity and decay. The one stage passes 
into the other insensibly, and it is a part of the 
normal chemical history of the fruit that it should 
begin an incipient breaking down and disorganiza- 



380 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

tiou of tissue as soon as the ripening process in 
thoroughly complete. It will be seen, therefore, that 
the riper the fruit, the more nearly it approaches 
this period of disorganization, and the sooner the 
breaking down of the tissues may be expected to 
begin. When the fruit is picked very green, how- 
ever, this period of natural disorganization is com- 
paratively remote. On the other hand, fruits which 
are picked very green are not yet arrived at their 
most edible stage, and unless they are kept in the 
most favorable conditions, they are very likely to 
shrivel and to become unmarketable. 

In the case of apples, it is generally best to 
pick them, if they are to be stored or exported, 
just as they have arrived at their full size and 
when they have attained only a part of their full 
color. Overripe or fully ripe fruits must be sent 
to the market at once, or else they must be kept 
in artificial cold storage in order to thoroughly stop 
the chemical processes within the fruit, and when 
they are taken from storage they are verj^ likely to 
.soon decay. Apples which are picked slightly green, 
however, generally continue to keep well after being 
taken from cold storage. This was demonstrated at 
the World's Fair at Chicago, at which New York 
apples taken from cold storage remained upon the 
shelves in good condition for several weeks.* 

Pears, on the other hand, nearly always lose 
quality by fully ripening upon the tree. The cells 
of the fruit fill up with gritty mineral matter, much 



* Annals Hort. for 1893, 67. 



Ripening of Fears. 381 

to the detriment of texture. It is ordinarily con- 
sidered that the best time to pick a pear of any 
variety is just as soon as it reaches its full size 
and before it has begun to color. In most varie- 
ties, this stage is pretty well indicated by the facil- 
ity with which the fruit stem parts from the spur. 
The pear is taken in the hollow of the hand and 
turned up ; if the stem snaps off from the spur 
at its point of articulation, the fruit is generally 
considered to be ripe enough to pick. The pears 
are then ripened under cover. The best place in 
which to ripen them is a rather cool but dry room, 
like a loft or a chamber. Here they are piled upon 
the floor or upon racks, and they should not lie, 
for the best results, more than three or four pears 
deep. If they are piled too deep, the lower ones 
are likely to be indented by the weight of those 
above them. The room should be kept fairly close. 
If there is too much circulation of air, and if the 
temperature is high, the pears ripen too quickly, 
and often shrivel. A Bartlett pear, when properly 
picked and handled, ordinarily requires a full week 
in which to ripen up to its best quality, and the 
ripening process may often be continued consider- 
ably longer than this by picking the fruit early 
and keeping it cool. Kieffers, especially if grown 
in the north, seem to ripen best if they are stored 
in bulk, like beans, two or three feet deep, or even 
in barrels, and the ripening process is ordinarily 
two to three weeks long. If they are given this 
long time in which to mature, the quality may be 



382 The Principles of Fruit -grotmng. 

expected to be very much better than it is in the 
general run of samples. 

A peach is fit to pick when it is full grown 
and has begun to develop its characteristic color. 
Peaches and apricots do not ordinarily color up 
well after they are picked, although plums usually 
will do so, especially the Japanese plums, which may 
be picked very green and yet develop a high color. 
It is very difficult to describe that period of ma- 
turity at which a peach is ready for picking. An 
experienced picker will take the fruit softly in his 
hand and press the ball of his thumb very lightly 
upon the side, and if the fruit has a somewhat 
springy feeling, it is ready to take off the tree. 
This pressure is never sufficient to leave any mark 
upon the fruit. Pinching a peach will almost always 
spoil it. If the peach is too green, it will feel 
hard and stone -like. If it is too soft, it will simply 
indent, and will not have the elastic feeling which 
is mentioned. 

In the case of cherries and plums, it is very 
important that the fruits be picked just before 
they have reached their condition of most edible 
quality. This is largely because the fruit-rot fun- 
gus is very likely to destroy the fruits at the time 
of their ripening, especially upon those varieties 
which are particularly subject to the disorder. 
Amongst plums, the Lombard is one of the most 
seriously attacked ; and amongst cherries, nearly all 
the white -fleshed ones, like Governor Wood and 
Napoleon, are greatly subject to injury. If the 



Eot of Cherries. 383 

weather at picking time gives promise of being 
close and warm or muggy, then it is exceedingly 
important that the fruit should be picked early. In 
sweet cherries, a delay of a few hours will some- 
times result in the loss of an entire crop from the 
fruit -rot fungus. Cherries and, plums should always 
be picked, if possible, when they are perfectly dry. 
This is especially true of the sweet cherries. If 
they are picked when they are wet, and put into 
boxes or baskets in this condition, they will be 
almost certain to decay before reaching the market, 
unless the weather remains very cool. 

This fruit -rot fungus is very serious upon many 
stone fruits. In cherries, "the losses from this dis- 
ease which have come under my observation are 
invariably the result of letting the fruit hang on 
the trees till ripe, and then the rot is very active; 
but cherries should be picked a few days before 
ripe, before they soften, and then the rot does not 
seriously affect them. An illustration of this point, 
which is a most important one, was brought to my 
notice the present season. The last week of June, 
in eastern New York, was very hot and close, 
with showers every day or two. The cherries were 
then ripening, and the conditions were favorable for 
the rot to spread. In one orchard, from which 
several tons of cherries were shipped that week, 
there was not more than one hundred and fifty 
pounds destroyed by the rot, while in another or- 
chard a few miles distant at least ten tons of the 
same varieties were ruined on the trees. In the first 



384 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

orchard the fruit was picked before it had ripened, 
and all that was fit was taken off as soon as the 
trees dried off after a shower ; in the other or- 
chard it was left till nearly ripe, and one -half to 
two -thirds of the crop was lost before the fruit 
could be picked. So rapid is the work of this 
fungus at this period, that the owner of the orchard 
told me that he lost three tons of one variety in 
one night. It might be added that the orchard first 
mentioned was a much stronger one, as it was in 
cultivation, while the last had been in sod for years, 
and the general debility and neglect of the trees 
made them good subjects for the attacks of rot or 
any other disease."* 

How to pick.— In picking the soft fruits, like cher- 
ries and plums, the operator grasps the stem and 
not the fruit itself. In this way he does not remove 
the delicate bloom, and does not injure the fruit 
when pulling it from the spur. In the case of 
grapes, it is likewise very important, especially in 
those which have a heavy bloom, that the picker 
should not grasp the bunch itself, but should take 
the cluster by the stem and snip it off with shears 
(which are made for the purpose). In the case of 
peaches and apricots, this precaution, of course, need 
not be taken, because the stem does not naturally 
adhere to the fruit ; but the operator must be very 
careful, when picking these fruits, not to grasp them 
too tightly, otherwise he will bruise them and cause 

*G. H. Powell, Bull. 98, CorneU Exp. Sta. 410. 



Leave the Stems On. 385 

them to become discolored. The picker must alwaj'S 
bear in mind that every evidence of fruits having 
been touched by the hands detracts from their market 
value. Strawberries should always be picked with 
the stems on. A berry which has the hull pulled 
out is not fit for the market. The picker should 
grasp the stem itself and pinch it off between the 
thumb and the finger. 

Upon all fruits which grow on a distinct pedicel 
or stem, this stem should be allowed to remain. 
Pears ^ which have the stems pulled out or broken 
in two are never first-class fruits, no matter how 
good and uniform the specimens otherwise may 
be. This is even true of apples when they are 
put up for the finest dessert trade ; but as they 
are ordinarily handled, very little attention is paid 
to leaving the stems on. Leaving the stems on is 
vital to the handling of plums and cherries, not 
only because the market demands it, but because 
the fruit will be very likely to rot if the stems 
are pulled out, and they will not pack so snugly, 
and will not stand the transportation so well. Tlie 
stems of cherries, plums and currants, and the hulls 
of strawberries, serve a most useful purpose in h<jld- 
ing the fruits in place in the box or l)asket, and 
in taking up the slack from settling or shrinkage. 

A word may be expected in respect to the ex- 
act methods of handling fruit in the field. It is 
only in rare cases that fruit should be sent to the 
market in the packages in which the pickers place 
it ; that is, it will need to be sorted from these 



386 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



packages into others, and this sorting should be 
done in a cool shed or packing room. In the pick- 




Fig. 77. Dundee berry stand. 



ing of small fruits, various kinds of trays or stands 
are used. In strawberries, it is important that these 
stands should have legs, so that when the package 
is set down it will not crush the berries, and 
neither will it be so likely to tip over. Such 

stands are handy for grapes, 
or for any kind of berry 
fruits as well. Fig. 77 
shows a type of berry- 
stand which is largely used 
in parts of New York for 
the picking of raspberries 
and blackberries. This 
stand holds six one -quart 
boxes, and a tier is 
easily stacked upon another, one tier or layer 
of stands breaking joints with those above and 




Fig. 78. Berry-tray made of sheet 
iron, with band-iron handle. 



Berry - stands . 387 

below. Other types ot berry -stands are shown in 
Figs. 78, 79 and 80. 

In the picking of tree -fruits, it is ordinarily 
best to use a basket and not a bag, for in spite 
of all one can do, the fruit is bruised when i^ is 
thrown into a bag which is slung over the shoulder. 
In the picking of peaches, it is customary to pick 
in something like a Climax basket, or better still, 
in the old-fashioned tall, round -top peck baskets, 
such as are standards in New Jersey and other 
places. These baskets are held at about one's 





Fig. 79. Berry-stand on legs. ^'S- ^^- Tray for berry boxes. 



middle by dropping them into a hoop which is 
held upon the person by a strap running over the 
shoulder and under one arm (Fig. 81). This allows 
the picker the free use of both arms, and obviates 
the necessity of his being obliged to stretch or 
stoop to deposit the fruit after he has picked it. 
The baskets are filled about level full, all the fruits 
which are ripe enough for picking being saved in- 
discriminately. The basket is then set in the shade 
alongside the tree from which the fruit was taken, 
and at intervals a wagon or cart collects the bas- 
kets and takes them to the packing -room, where 



388 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



the fruit is sorted, graded and packed. In the 
picking of apples, the best method is ordinarily to 
use a half -bushel, round -bottomed splint (not woven) 
basket which has a swinging handle. If this basket 




Fig. 81. Pickinji pea 



is lined on the inside with thick cloth or burlaps, 
it will answer the purpose all the better. This 
basket is provided with a strong wire hook, that 
can be hung upon a limb, allowing the picker to 



Baskets and Wagons. 389 

have both hands free. There are various special 
practices to facilitate apple -picking, which are not 
proper subjects for discussion in a general fruit- 
book. 

There are various appliances which may be used 
in the field to facilitate the picking of fruit, some 
of which may be briefly mentioned. In the first 
place, the fruit picker should provide himself with 
an ample supply of crates or baskets, or whatever 
other receptacle may be used in the field. These 
receptacles should be strong and durable, so that 
they may be used year after jear ; this is espe- 
cially true of the baskets and crates which are used 
for the picking of the heavier fruits, like pears, 
apples and grapes. It is generally advisable to take 
the fruits to the packing house in the very baskets or 
boxes in which they are placed from the tree, thereby' 
avoiding unnecessary handling of the fruit. In the 
case of winter apples, however, it is sometimes ad- 
missible to carefully pour the apples from the round- 
bottomed baskets, into which they are picked, into 
bushel baskets, or sometimes into crates such as are 
used for potatoes. In any case it is always advis- 
able, in the best quality of fruit, to have all these 
baskets or crates lined with burlaps. 

The best wagons for use in orchards are those 
which are of the platform style, with low and very 
broad -tired wheels, and the platform extending over 
the wheels. Such wagons are not only capable of 
carrying a very large load, but do not cut up the 
ground ; they are easily drawn and managed, and 



390 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

they escape the limbs in low orchards. It is desir- 
able that the front wheels should turn under the 
platform, in order that the wagon may be turned at 
sharp angles. The practice of loading apples and 
other fruits into a wagon box in bulk cannot be 
too strongly deprecated. It is only admissible when 
the apples are of low quality, and are fit only for 
sale as second and third grades, or for manufacture 
into cider, evaporated stock, or other products. 

The styles of ladders to be used must depend 
directly upon the height of the trees. In old apple 
orchards, it is nearly always essential to have long 
and light ladders, with a sharp or peaked top, which 
can be run directly up into the top of the tree and 
find lodgment against the branches. Extension lad- 
ders are also used, but they are usually more cum- 
bersome and more difficult to manage than the light 
pointed -topped implement which is here mentioned. 
In most other orchards, however, a step-ladder of 
the ordinary pattern, but perhaps somewhat taller 
(running from ten to even twelve feet high), is all 
that will be required. This ladder should have a 
flat top, and also a movable shelf upon its back, 
where baskets may be placed. The facility of pick- 
ing fruit is very much increased if the trees have 
been well trained and pruned. Dwarf pears should 
rarely reach a height of more than twelve or fifteen 
feet ; and if pear and apple trees are planted suffi- 
ciently far apart, and are kept open at the base, the 
pickers can reach most of the fruit by climbing. In 
the picking of apples and pears, there is nothing 





Fig. 82. Various types of ladder arrangements. 



392 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

which answers the purpose so well as a strong, nim- 
ble boy who is not afraid to climb. In many or- 
chards, the long and cumbersome ladders may be 
almost entirely dispensed with if this requisite is at 
hand. For getting into the tops of fruit trees, a 
short and very light ladder with three or four rungs 
is exceedingly useful. This little ladder will also aid 
greatly in the gathering of fruit which hangs upon 
the lower limbs just out of the reach of the picker. 
The ladder is stood upright and the picker mounts 
it quickly, crossing his legs over the top one or two 
rungs, and holds himself erect by grasping a limb 
above his head, as shown in the illustration (2, 
Fig. 82, page 391). This is a type of ladder which 
is much used by professional top -grafters. 

The various kinds of fruit -picking devices which 
are upon the market are useful only for gathering 
the few outlying fruits upon the tall and far-reaching 
limbs. It is never practicable to use them for the 
picking of the entire crop, except in those very rare 
cases in which the crop is small and all the fruits 
are fit for the dessert trade. The labor of picking 
with these devices is slow and onerous. One of the 
best types of fruit -pickers is shown at 5 in Fig. 83, 



Note.— A variety of ladders is shown in Fig. 82, No. 1 is a light ladder 
with a wheel, allowing it to be wheeled like a wheelbarrow when it is 
shut lip, as at 4 ; 2, the short ladder, not requiring support, described in the 
text above ; 3, a German device for securing a support to a ladder, allow- 
ing the two supporting legs to be shut together ; 5, a pointed ladder, with 
support; 6, similar ladder, without support (very useful in tall trees); 7, plat- 
form ladder ; 8, wagon rigged for picking, the planks y, y (upon which the 
picker stands) being swung around lengthwise the box when driving from 
tree to tree. 




Fig. 83. Different implements for picking fruits. 



394 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



which may be made by any handy man. The fruits 
are hooked off by the V-shaped trigger at the top, 

and are delivered to 
the picker through 
the canvas or bur- 
hips bag which ex- 
tends along the 
handle. Of course, 
onl}- one fruit 

should be allowed 
to go through the 
bag at a time. 
Another very handy 
device is the fin- 
ger picker, illus- 
trated at No. 18. 
This may be made by any handy tinsmith, who, how- 
ever, should be cautioned against making it too heavy 
and cumbersome. In this instance, the apple is deliv- 
ered to the picker by taking doAvn the instrument. 
The disadvantage of this tool is that the fingers are 
apt to spring with use, and the apple will pull 
through between them rather than be pulled off. 
There are also devices in use for catching the fruit 
when it is shaken from the tree or bush. These are 
usually upon the principle of a soft cloth hopper 




Fig. 84. Cook's apple picker. 



Note.— Key to Fig. 83 : No. 1, picker composed of two pincer-like jaws, with 
wire guards to receive the fruits, the jaws being closed by means of a cord, 
which is worked below (2 and 3) by a catch; 4, hook used for cutting off the fruits 
(the curved edge being sharp) ; 5, V-picker with delivery sack ; 6, Bag-picker, 
hung on a wii-e frame (as shown in 7) ; 8, a wire finger-picker ; 9, cranberry 
picker ; 10, 6-quart cranberry measure ; 11, 12, 13, forms of wire pickers. 



Fruit -picking Machines . 



395 



(see Fig. 84) . Such machines are often very use- 
ful in the gathering of black currants and goose- 
berries. For these purposes inverted umbrellas are 
sometimes used. Cherries are sometimes gathered by 
being shaken into the machines used for the catch- 
ing of curculios. It is needless to say that these 




Fig. 85. Batting the berries. 

means of gathering fruit are advisable only when 
the fruit is to be manufactured into some commer- 
cial product, or when the price of fruit is extremely 
small. 

To lessen the cost of harvesting, and to over- 
come the difficulty of securing pickers in remote 
places, a harvester for raspberries has come into use 



396 The Principles of Fruit -groiving. 

ill New York state.* This is a canvas tray, made 
by stretching the cloth over a light wooden frame 
about three feet wide and four or five feet long. 
At the bottom, the frame projects upwards at right 
angles to the body of the frame to a dis- 
tance of five or six inches, to catch the ber- 
ries as they fall upon the canvas. A wooden 
shoe or runner is placed on the bottom of the 
apparatus, to allow the operator to slide it 
along from bush to bush, as shown in Fig. 85. 
A long wire hook (Fig. 86) is used to pull 
the bushes over the tray or to lift up the 
fallen canes, whilst with the other hand the 
operator deftly cuffs off the berries with a 
paddle of wood or of wire covered with can- 
vas and about the size of a butter ladle. 

The harvester is used only for the gath- 
ering of berries which are to be evaporated. 
The berries are allowed to become fully ripe, 
so that they fall easily, and the 
patch is gone over about three 
times. Much litter falls with the 
ig. 86. Battel b loo -. bcrrics, but this is readily re- 
moved by running the dried fruit through a fanning 
mill. There are few growers who use this harvester 
exclusively. It is often brought into requisition for 
the last picking, or in seasons of low prices, and it 
also has a most stimulating effect upon a lot of dis- 
affected berry pickers. The device was first perfected 
by Mr. Benedict, of Dundee, New York, although 

♦Bulletin 100, Cornell Exp. Sta. 




Keeping Fruit After Picllng. 397 

the idea seems to have originated with Uriah Hair, 
of the same place. 

After fruit is picked, it is very important that it 
should be kept cool and away from the direct sun. 
This is particularly important with the soft and 
])erry-like fruits, like grapes, strawberries, cherries 
and peaches. The fruits not only ripen up rapidly 
after they are picked if the sun strikes them, but 
they may also become so warm that they will not 
withstand shipment. It is ordinarily best to pick the 
perishable fruits early in the morning, if they are 
dry, and then to pack them up tight and send them 
directly to the railway station ; or, if they have be- 
come too warm, or if it is desired to dela}^ the ship- 
ment, then they should be put in the cellar or a 
cold storage in order to reduce them to a low tem- 
perature. If the soft fruits, like strawberries and 
raspberries, are treated in this way, they will ordi- 
narily endure shipment best if they are sent in tight, 
un ventilated crates. Apples ripen up very rapidly in 
the pile if they are exposed directly to the rays of 
the sun. It is alwaj^s well, therefore, if they are 
piled iu the field, to place them on the shady side of 
the tree, if possible; l)ut, no dou])t, the very best 
results in long -keeping qualities are obtained when 
the apples are taken directly from the trees to a cool 
room and there kept in storage, where the ripening 
process is wholly or partially checked. This is espe- 
cially important if they are to be shipped long dis- 
tances, and particularly if they are to be exported. If 
the weather is cool and somewhat dull at the picking 



C. H. Gould. 



398 The Principles of Fruit -grounng. 

time, this precaution is not so essential as it is in 
falls which are dry, bright and warm. 

Keeping records with the pickers. — There are va- 
rious methods of keeping accounts with berry pickers. 
Perhaps the commonest mode in large patches is a 
simple ticket, like Fig. 87, which is given to the 
picker in exchange for the 
berries which are delivered. 
There are tickets of various 

6 denominations, the figures rep- 

resenting quarts, so that any 
number of quarts can be rep- 
resented by combinations of 
tickets. These tickets are so 
often lost that they may soon 
FigT^r^id.;!-^ ticket. ' come to be a nuisance, al- 
though some growers prefer 
them for this very reason, for all that are lost do 
not have to be redeemed. Several growers, there- 
fore, have designed tickets which can be tied to 
the person by a string, which bear the picker's 
name, and in which the numl)ers are cancelled by 
a punch. Two good styles are shown, half-size, 
in Figs. 88 and 89. In the latter are two 
styles of punch marks, representing different fore- 
men. Other growers abolish all ticket systems out- 
right, and keep a book account with each picker ; 
and, what is better, they pay by the pound. A 
small, flat -topped grocers' scale may be taken to the 
shed in the berry field. Each picker is numbered, 
and he picks in an eight -pound or ten -pound Climax 



Accounts with Pickers. 



399 



grape basket. As he comes to the shed, he slips his 
number into the basket on a bit of card or splint, 
and he sees the basket weighed and the credit given; 
or, if the picker has no suspicions, the foreman may 
gather the baskets from the field. Growers generally 
pay 2 cents a quart for raspberries, or l.G cents a 




Fig. 88. Pickei's t: 





/ffH 


^661 


2 


% 


^661 


2 


3 


«• 6 6 1 


^ 


3 


to 6 6 1 


2 


3 


6 6 6 1 
6 6 6 1*, 
6 6 6 1 


2 

3 


3 
3 


6 6 6 1 

6 a» e «■ 


2 
2 


3 

a 




3 



Pickers tag. 



pound (since a quart weighs 1% pounds), but the 
price can be dropped to 1 cent a pound in some 
varieties and in good picking. 

In the picking of fruits, it is always essential that 
each picker finish the particular job to which he is 
assigned. This is especially important in the small- 
fruits, for the picker must follow a certain row, and 



PicMng and Packing. 401 

not be wandering- over the plantation in search of 
the best picking. Fig. 90 shows the method of 
"lining off" cranberry pickers. 

Necessitii of hand -pick in fj. — It would seem to be 
unnecessary to say that all fruits which are to be 
put into a good market should be hand-picked, and 
yet it is a fact that a great quantity of the apples, 
and even of tlie pears and plums, which go into 
our common markets are shaken from the trees. 
It is impractical)le to grade or sort such fruits, 
because the proportion of jammed or bruised fruits 
is so great that the samples of first quality are 
found to l)e very few. It is an axiom in fruit- 
marketing that only the best fruit pays for careful 
packing, and that the poor fruit is rarely w<^rth the 
trouble of grading. The better the fruit, therefore, 
and the more carefully it is picked, the more profit- 
able may be the attention which is given to sort- 
ing and packing. 

THE PACKING OF FRUIT. 

What is first-class fruit f — The very first thing to 
be considered in the packing of fruit is to deter- 
mine what first-class fruit is. Even amongst those 
persons who sell apples for the export trade, there 
is very little exact practice in the sorting of the 
apples. It seems to be ordinarily considered that 
any fruit which is sound enough to reach its desti- 
nation is good enough to be called first-class; 
but such standard is a serious error. The fruit 

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a S !3 1) H 

^ '''^ S a 



■p. a 



What is First-class Frtiitf 403 

should not only reach its destination in approxi- 
mately the same condition in which it leaves the 
orchard, but it should also be attractive and uni- 
form in quality, and capable of being* held for some 
time when it reaches the wholesaler. Mere sound- 
ness or perfectness of form and freedom from all 
bruises and blemishes do not constitute a first-class 
apple. All the specimens should grade up to a 
more or less uniform standard of size and shape, 
and any fruit which is ever so perfect in itself 
would not be considered to be first-class amongst 
fruits which average either verj^ much larger or 
very much smaller. In other words, there is a great 
difference lietwoen a perfect specimen and a first- 
class parcel. Perhaps it will answer all require- 
ments to define first-class fruit as a quantity of 
sufficient amount to be quoted in the market (as 
one box, basket or barrel), which is thoroughly well 
packed and of one variety, and in which the indi- 
vidual specimens are very nearly uniform in size, 
shape and degree of ripeness, are possessed of full- 
length stems (in stem-bearing fruits), are free from 
bruises and injuries and all insect and fungous 
blemishes, are fully characttM-istic of the variety, 
and are in that stage of miiturit^' which the market 
demands at the time of their exposure for sale. 

This is well illustrated in Fig. 91, which repre- 
sents a tray of winter apples. It shows a variety of 
apples of second and third class, and yet they were 
taken from a lot which sold for first-class fruit. It 
may be well to designate the particular points in 



404 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



these apples which throw them out of a first-class 
sample. Beginning with the front row, the specimen 
upon the left is scabbed in two or three places ; th« 
next one has a worm -hole about the stem, but it is 
otherwise perfect ; the third one has a worm -hole in 
the top, and is also shrivelled ; the end one on the 
right was a perfect apple as it hung on the tree, but 
when shaken off it struck a limb or the ground, and 




)2. First-class sample. 



was flattened on one side. Beginning with the left 
apple upon the back row, it will be seen that there 
is a bad insect blemish upon the side ; the second 
one has a puncture in the side ; the third one, on 
top, is perfect in itself (as a specimen), but it is of 
very inferior size for apples of its class ; the last 
apple upon the right has a worm -hole in the blos- 
som end, and is withered. Fig. 92 shows a first- 
class sample. Fig. 93 (page 408) shows a barrel of 



The Number of Grades. 405 

Ben Davis apples just opened, in which the different 
specimens are of uniform size and quality. 

Essentially these same remarks may be applied to 
other kinds of fruits. It should be remembered 
that the more personal and local the market, the 
more exacting that market is, and therefore the 
greater attention should be paid to the details of 
sorting and grading. It should be especially im- 
pressed upon the horticulturist that uniformity in 
size is quite as important to a package of fruits as 
excellence in intrinsic quality of the individual speci- 
mens. The reader will also recall that the proper 
grading of fruit is greatly facilitated by thinning the 
fruits on the trees, a subject which has received 
specific treatment in Chapter VI. It would seem to 
be unnecessary to add that the mechanical sorters 
now recommended in some quarters are wholly un- 
adapted to use for any but the rougher and cheaper 
qualities of fruits and for potatoes. High quality 
apples which come through the sorter apparently 
without blemish usually show discolored spots in a 
few days, and softer fruits are often ruined. 

It is evident, therefore, that if fruit is sorted, two 
grades will result, — the first-class grade and the re- 
mainder. In small -fruits, these two grades — known 
as the firsts and the seconds — usually comprise the 
entire crop, and the same may be true of tree fruits 
which have been well grown and rigorously thinned. 
In most cases, however, tree fruits are made into 
three grades, the third grade being generally known 
as culls. Persons who sort their fruit as carefully 



406 The Princijyles of Fruit -(jroiving. 

as our definition requires will do well to designate 
the first grade by some special name or mark, as 
"Selected," "First Choice," and the like, in order to 
distinguish it from the common type of so-called 
first-class fruit. In such thorough sorting, four 
grades are often necessary, in order to properly pre- 
sent the fruit to the various types of consumers. It 
should be remarked, however, that the better the 
fruit as it hangs on the tree or vine, the fewer will 
be the grades in the packing -house. 

The packing of fruit, therefore, comprises two 
rather distinct elements, — the sorting or grading 
(which has now been considered), and the placing 
of the fruits in the final receptacles, or packing 
proper, to which we now proceed. 

How to p((cl\ — The method of packing must de- 
pend very greatly upon the market which is to be 
reached, upon the quality of the fruit, and upon the 
package which is to be used. Ordinarily, women are 
better fruit -packers than men, especially for the deli- 
cate fruits, like peaches, the berries and grapes. 
Each individual fruit or cluster should be placed in 
the package separately and by hand. This is em- 
phatically true of all the tender and perishable des- 
sert fruits. The specimens are ordinarily laid in con- 
centric rows, the first row being placed on the out- 
side of the bottom of the basket, and other cir- 
cles filling in the layer until it is full. Other tiers 
are then placed in the same way. The top layer 
is placed with special care, the stems of the fruits 
being all laid one way, and the same side of the 



Facing of Fruit. 407 

fruit (ordinarily the cheek) showing uppermost. The 
top of the basket should present a uniform and 
finished appearance, and should be slightly rounding 
or oval in shape. There will ordinarilj^ be a differ- 
ence of from five to ten cents a basket between good 
plums or peaches sent to the market as they are 
picked from the tree, and those which are properly 
packed and finished up. 

When packing apples and pears in kegs or bar- 
rels, it is not always necessary to place every in- 
dividual; and yet, if the packages are to go abroad, 
it is ordinarily best to take this pains, laying all 
the fruits in tiers, for thereby there is tight packing 
and little shrinkage; and when one handles his fruit 
so carefully he is constantly throwing out the in- 
ferior samples. As apples are ordinarilj^ handled for 
our domestic trade, however, they are simply faced 
upon the two ends. They ought always to be faced 
upon one end. This facing is done by selecting 
apples of uniform grade and placing them in con- 
centric rows on the lower head or end of the bar- 
rel. About two or three tiers should be faced, the 
rings of one tier breaking joints with those of an- 
other. The stem end should point towards the head 
of the barrel. The apples in the middle of the 
barrel may be turned in from a round -bottomed, 
swing -handled basket, which can be let directly into 
the barrel (or from a smaller l)asket which will 
turn in the barrel), and after every basket is emptied 
the barrel should be lightly shaken to settle the 
fruits. It is generally advisable to face the upper 



408 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



head of the barrel before the head is placed in, 
but this is not always done. The barrel is ordi- 
narily headed up, then ended over, and the oppo- 
site or originally -faced end is stenciled, and this is 
the end which the dealer is supposed to open. It 




Fig. 93. Barrel of tirst-elass apples opened up in the market. 



very frequently happens, however, that the dealer, 
in order to test the packing, opens the wrong or 
unintended end of the barrel ; and in selling large 
lots of apples two or three barrels are sometimes 
used as samples, and the entire contents are rolled 
out upon the packing house or auction room floor. 



Packing Apples for Export. 409 

A barrel of winter apples properly faced and packed 
is shown just as it was opened in Fig. 93. 

The greatest care should be taken in the packing 
of apples for export, because they are subjected to 
long and trying transportation, the freight and inci- 
dental rates are high, and only the very best fruits 
will pay transportation and other expenses. One 
reason why the foreign market has recently been so 
poor for American apples is because a great amount 
of poorly -sorted and poorly -packed fruit has been ex- 
ported. The following suggestions for the exporting 
of apples are condensed from a report made by 
George T. Powell, of New York state, to the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture for that state, and will be 
found to be very useful :* 

"Kind of fruit wanted. — Only good fruit is Avanted abroad. 
The fruit-grower should begin months in advance to secure 
good quality, by practicing good tillage, efficient fertilizing, 
and thorough spraying. Apples grown on trees which have 
imperfect (insect-eaten and fungous- infested) foliage generally 
fail to carry in good condition to Europe. Standard fall and 
winter varieties are most in demand in the export trade. 
Duchess and Twenty Ounce generally sell well if picked while 
hard. Alexander is too soft. Baldwin, Greening, Spy, King, 
Spitzenburgh, Hubbardston (Nonesuch), Newtown (Pippin), Peck's 
Pleasant, and late Russets are popular varieties. Jonathan 
and other medium-sized apples are especially desired. Red 
apples sell better than solid green ones, as a rule. Soft 
summer varieties do not ship well. 

"Picking the fruit. — Apples intended for export should be 
picked earlier than for the home trade, but not when green 

* Suggestions as to the Picking and Packing of Fruit for the Foreign 
and Home Markets, Albany, 189(j 



410 The Principles of Frnit-growing. 

and immature. It is largely the beauty of the American 
apple which sells it; therefore, the color should be well ad- 
vanced before the apple is picked. Hand pick the finest 
very carefully. It is advisable to barrel and ship as soon 
as picked, rather than to store the fruit for some days in 
piles in the orchard. 

"Packing. — Sort carefully. Very fine fruit should be marked 
^Fancy' or 'Selected,' with four X's (XXXXj, and witli the 
grower's or shipper's name or initials. The secoml grade 
should be good, and marked with three X's. Nothing lower 
than this should be exported. The English law requires that 
the package be plainly marked 'American Produce.' Us(! only 
standard size barrels. Put in a double row of facers. Ai>pk's 
somewhat soft in texture, like Greenings, may be pressed down 
a full inch in barreling, but hard apples should not be 
squeezed so much. Nail the barrels securely. If the apples 
become loose in transit, they will be very much injured. 

"Methods of sale. — Apples are sold in the English markets 
by sample. Two barrels of a lot are selected, one opened 
to show the j)acking, the other turned out so that every 
apple can be seen. The lot is then sold at auction. The 
first day of sale they are sold as 'sound.' These are de- 
livered within twenty-four hours. Any loose l>arrels, known 
as 'slacks' or 'slack packed,' and any from which the juice 
is running, called 'wets,' are closed out at the succeeding sale." 

Shiftless packing really accounts for more tlian 
one -half of all the unsatisfactory returns from fruit. 
This fact is commonly acknowledged to be true by 
the fruit -growers themselves, and it is annuall}' im- 
pressed upon them by teachers, buyers and con- 
sumers, and yet it is an astonishing fact that the 
great majority of all our fruits are either not packed 
and graded at all, or else the work is done in the 
most careless manner. The eastern fruits are often 
better in quality than the Calif ornian fruits, and 



German Advice. 411 

being grown near the consumer, they ought to com- 
mand a superior price ; and yet it is a fact that be- 
cause of the better packing and sorting of the Cali- 
fornia product, it drives the home fruit from the 
markets. The lu'tter x)acking of this Californian 
produc^t has arisen from the fact that transportation 
rates are such an important item in the marketing of 
the fruits, and time of transit is so long, that only 
the highest -priced and soundest fruit can bring the 
consignor any profit after the expenses and risks are 
deducted. It is always found that the farther fruit 
has to be shipped, the greater is the care exercised 
in the grading and packing. 

Whilst we, with the best of reasons, are con- 
stantly deploring the shiftless attention given to the 
packing of our fruit, the fruit-growers of Europe tnv 
impressed with the excellent condition in which our 
apples often arrive in their markets. The following 
extract is from a German paper of recent date:* 

"Although during the last few years repeated at- 
tention has been called, by those in authority, to the 
development of the German fruit industry as a pos- 
sible means of enlarging the net proceeds of domestic 
agriculture, it is necessary again and again to recur 
to the sul)ject, and especially at this time to call at- 
tention to the fact that our fruit industry is confronted 
by a crisis w^hich, if it does not meet with immediate 
and strong resistance, threatens to completely destroy 
it, and thus to greatly damage our national welfare. 

Ueutsche Laudwirtsehaftliche Presse, xxiv., No. 7, Jan. 27, 1897. 



412 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

This danger has now become actual through the 
flooding of the German market with fresh American 
apples. It is, e. g., a fact, that during this winter 
the demand for apples in Berlin is being supplied 
with the American product, and others are scarcely 
offered or not desired. This condition, and the 
dangers to the German fruit industry arising there- 
from, are set forth in a praiseworthy manner in a 
small pamphlet by B. L. Kiihne - Rixdorf (Berlin, 
1897). This pamphlet also points out the means by 
which we in Germany, by following to some extent 
the practical American — in relation to the growing of 
a few good marketable varieties of fruits, rigidly sort- 
ing them, and packing and shipping in proper pack- 
ages — can successfully meet the dangers alluded to. 

"The suggestions made by the author of the 
pamphlet are as follows : 

"1. The fast transportation of fresh German fruit 
at low rates on the part of the railroads. 

"2. The cultivation of a few valuable varieties. 

"3. The rigid sorting of fruit destined to be eaten 
in the fresh state. 

"4. The rational conversion of the less valuable 
fruit into imperishable marketable products, as fruit 
juices, cider, marmalade, jelly, steamed fruit, dried 
fruit, and fruit wines. 

"5. The general iutroduction of light, cheap and 
strong packing cases of standard size. 

"6. The proper packing of the fresh fruit. 

"7. The training of scientific and practical special- 
ists in fruit culture. 



Wrapping in Paper. 413 

"8. The planting of large, rationally conceived and 
intensively cultivated fruit plantations, for the imme- 
diate supply of the German market. 

"The present conditions prove that past methods 
for advancing the German fruit industry have not 
been productive of the desired results, and it is high 
time that all who have the welfare of this industry 
at heart unite on the basis suggested; then and not 
until then will the conditions improve through the in- 
creased home production of fruit, if but sufficient 
to cover home consumption; we shall be able to suc- 
cessfully meet foreign competition, and this done, it 
will be possible to conquer for the German product 
a prominent place in the markets of the world." 

Fruits which are intended for the dessert may 
often be put into the consumer's hands in very excel- 
lent condition by wrapping them in soft grocer's 
paper, of the kind which is ordinarily called tea 
paper ; or, when the product is especially choice, and 
the grower has a large quantity, it may pay him to 
use a grade of tissue paper. There are many middle- 
men who practice this careful packing, and growers 
may often imitate them with profit. It is needless 
to say that all wrapped samples of fruit reach the 
consumer in perfect condition, and he may depend 
upon their excellence and uniformity as he could 
upon a case of eggs. With pears or apples, the in- 
side of the keg or barrel is lined with newspapers, 
and each fruit is individually wrapped in soft ma- 
nilla paper. Such fruits may be expected to carry 
thousands of miles without perceptible injury. When 



414 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

opened, their aroma is such that no well-bred con- 
sumer can resist the temptation of a hig'h price. 
Ordinary fruits, however, are not worth this care. 

It is important that all fruit should be packed 
very snug, especially that which is to be shipped 
any distance in barrels or other large packages. 
Fruit which is slack when it reaches the market is 
nearly always injured, and sells as second or third 
quality product. This slacking or shaking in barrels 
may be prevented by using fruits which ai-e not over 
ripe, by careful attention to grading, so that all the 
specimens are of uniform maturity, by keeping the 
product cool after it is packed, and especially ]\v 
placing the fruits in the package l\y hand. Barrels 
of apples and pears should ordinarily be filled about 
an inch above the chine and the fruit should be 
pressed in with a screw or lever press until the head 
comes into place. If the fruits are wrapped in paper, 
or if the package is lined with several thicknesses 
of paper, the spring of the paper itself will take 
up the slack and will keep the fruit in place ; and 
in such cases it is not necessary to apply heavy 
pressure in the heading -up of the barrel. 

Upon the best brands of fruit, a trade- mark is 
often important. Some neat pictorial design, with 
the name of the grower and a statement to the ef- 
fect that the fruit is guaranteed to be as repre- 
sented, attracts the eye of the purchaser and gives 
him confidence in the article ; but to put a trade- 
mark upon fruit of indifferent or even of ordinary 
quality is little more than a joke. If a man uses 



The Groiving of the Fruit. 415 

a trade -mark, he must expect, of course, to handle 
his own produce, or at least to see that it reaches 
the market under his own name. The fruit buyers 
who travel through the country for apples and other 
produce ordinarily pay little attention to the trade- 
mark of the grower, but put their own mark upon 
the package. If one really grows a good quality of 
fruit, it will commonl}' pay him to give his farm 
some neat and attractive name, which can go onto 
the labels. In short, every effort should be made 
to put up the produce in a finished manner, as 
the best grades of manufactured produce are now 
packed and delivered to the consumer. 

Very much of the success of any fruit upon the 
market depends upon how it is grown as well as 
how it is handled. There may even be a difference 
in the salableness of samples of fruit which are to 
all appearances alike. It is now pretty well demon- 
strated, for example, that apples from trees which 
have been thoroughly sprayed and well tilled are 
better keepers than those of similar size and appear- 
ance which are grown upon neglected trees. When 
fruits are to be shipped to n\\Y distance, it is par- 
ticularly important that the tillage and general care 
of the fruit plantation should have been the best. 

Pacl'af/es. — It is well nigh useless to make any 
general remarks upon the packages which are used 
for fruits, because so much depends upon the par- 
ticular grade of the fruit and upon the way in 
which it is shipped and handled ; very much also 
depends upon the demands of the given market. 



416 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

It is an excellent plan for the fruit-grower to visit 
markets in advance of the ripening of his crop, and 
to determine just what style of package his market 
will most appreciate. When fruits are pooled, or 
shipped through exchanges or unions, it is imperative 
that a uniform style of package should be used; but 
when a man handles fruit solely upon his own ac- 
count, and has a fine or superior quality, he can 
often advertise his product by a unique package, 
or at least by one that is unlike those in most 
common use. Such a package singles him out from 
his neighbors, and answers as a trade -mark for his 
product. The writer has known profitable returns to 
be got from fruit which was shipped in colored 
baskets. A dye was made of aniline, and the bas- 
kets were dipped into the kettle (being handled with 
a pitchfork), and fruit which was no better than the 
ordinary run brought from two to five cents a bas- 
ket more than that packed in the ordinary white 
package. This will not often succeed, however, but 
this instance is given simply to show that a package 
which is somewhat out of the usual run may be a 
desirable one for a man to use upon particular oc- 
casions. 

In all the finest fruits the grower should use 
nothing but a gift package, that is, one T^hich is 
given away with the fruit when it is sold. This in- 
sures a clean and dainty package, and the pur- 
chaser is not bothered with the thought of returning 
it. In fruits which are to reach a good market, 
a package which has been used once is a positive 



PacJcages for Fruits. 417 

detriment. In very manj^ cases, it is the packing 
and the package which sells the fruit, more than 
the fruit itself. When fruits are sold by the defi- 
nite quantity, as by the quart, the peck or the 
bushel, the packages should be full measure. It 
sometimes happens that for a time a man secures 
as much for a short or snide package as for one 
of full measure ; but such a person can scarcely 
expect to hold a superior trade for a great length 
of time. 

The most popular package at the present time 
for grapes, peaches and apricots is the Climax 
basket, which is made in various styles and sizes. 
Some of the common forms are shown in Fig. 95. 
These are made in sizes holding from five to ten 
or twelve pounds of fruit. They are handy, cheap, 
nest well in the shipment, and are durable. A good 
])asket of any kind should be one whi(*h is neatlj' 
made, with no splinters or tag ends hanging from 
it, which is firm and symmetrical in shape, well 
nailed, and which is perfectly' clean or white in 
appearance. Baskets become yellow and discol- 
ored if they are left in the sun; therefore, when 
they are stored, they should be placed in a clean 
and dark dry loft or room. If packages which 
have been left over from the last year are some- 
what dingy, it is sometimes possible to bleach 
them by burning a little sulfur in tne room. 

The grower, then, will begin some months in 
advance to look up the packages which he shall 
use, for he will thereby not only suit himself and 

BB 




Fig. yj. Various types of fruit packages. 




Fig. 95. Vuiious types of baskets. 



420 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

the market, but he will likely be able to secure 
his packages at a lower cost if he gets them 
early in the season ; and he will, in any event, 
be sure of his packages in case there should be a 
large demand for them at marketing time. It is 
well to secure the illustrated price-lists of the manu- 
facturers, and to thoroughly canvas the subjects of 
styles and prices some months in advance. 

All packages smaller than a half peck should be 
shipped in crates. It is customary to use crates 
with slat sides and an abundance of openings, in 
order to insure complete ventilation; but if the fruits 
are firm and dry when they are picked, and are then 
reduced to a lower temperature, they can be shipped 
in unventilated crates, generally with better results 
(page 397). The shriveling and shrinkage of the 
fruits will be less in the tight crates, and decay will 
ordinarily be less also. These crates should be gift 
packages, and made out of light split stuff, as bas- 



NOTE.— The pictures in Figs. 94-97, pages 418, 419, 422, 423, are shown 
for the purpose of acquainting the reader with some of the leading types 
of fruit packages now in use. 

Fig. 94.— No. 1, common quart berry box ; 2, the bottom, in flat ; 3, the 
sides, in flat ; 4, 5, 7, till baskets ; 6, paper basket, set tip ; 8, oblong quart 
boxes ; 9, 10, metal-topped baskets ; 11, biishel basket with slat cover ; 12, 
common splint peach basket; 13, same, with cover. 

Fig. 95.— No. 1, veneer peach basket ; 2, standard peach basket ; 3, veneer 
straight-sided basket ; 4, vegetable basket ; .5, California peaches, wrapped 
in paper ; 6, a frequent result in the market ; 7-11, various styles of Cli- 
max baskets ; 12, 13, baskets for apple-picking (same number of apples in 
each, but those in 13 from sprayed trees, those in 12 from untreated trees). 

Fig. 96.— No. 1, Diamond market basket ; 2, 16-pint basket-tray ; 3-9, vari- 
ous styles of crates for berry boxes. 

Fig. 97.— No. 1, crate for Leslie boxes ; 2, 4-quart hand-tray ; 3, 24-quart 
crate ; 4, till-basket crate ; 5, 6, fruit boxes- (holding from >^ to 1 bus.) ; 7, 



Packages for Fruits, 421 

kets are. Crates which are designed to be returned 
to the grower are usually heav}-, are commonly made 
of sawed stuff, and are provided with hinges and 
clasps. In shipping long distances by rail, large 
crates (holding as many as sixt}^ baskets or cups) 
are generally preferable, because there is less "side 
shake," because of the greater bulk ; and such lieavj' 
packages are not so carelessly handled as the small 
ones are. The time is rapidly coming when all the 
better grades and better qualities of fruits will be 
put up in special gift packages, and the time can- 
not be far distant when pasteboard boxes will be 
used to some extent. One of the most marked re- 
sults of the recent advancement and competition in 
the manufacture of products is the packing of single 
articles in tasty boxes. Boots and shoes, for ex- 
ample, were shipped loose in large cases a few years 
ago, whilst now, in all of the l^etter grades, every 
pair is boxed by itself. In other words, not only 
is the product itself a finished article, but it is 
packed in a dainty and finished way, and the same 

The bushel box; 8. patent fruit barrel; U, Highcliffe patent barrel for export 
apples (arranged to be sawn in tv/o without disturbing the fruit. 

With these packages the reader should compare Fig. 98, showing crates 
actually sent into the New York market with pears. The grower was evi- 
dently of an economical turn of mind, for he liad made the packages of 
the odds and ends of tlie place,— old boards and old rail, a wagon-jack, and 
a wagon-reach ! The New York party who sent us these packages wrote as 
follows : " I found a new fruit package on the market here, and as I know 
that you are deeply interested in horticulture, this will be of interest to you. 
It was invented and manufactured by a man up the Hudson River, and was 
used for shipping pears. The commission man who received this package 
offered it, pears and all, for 25 cts., but could not sell. I requested him 
to empty the fruit into a keg and let me have the package. He did so, 
sorting out a few of the smallest fruits, ftud then sold the keg for $1." 




Fiy. yO. Baskets uud crates. 




Fig. 97. Crates aud barrels. 



424 



The Principles of Fruit -growing. 



must come to be true of many of the better kinds 
of agricultural products. 

In the fanciest fruits, like the best dessert pears, 
and even some of the largest and finest strawberries, 
it is often profitable to ship in cases something like 




Fig. 98. Novel packages found in the New York market. 



those used for eggs, in which each individual fruit 
has a compartment or receptacle of its own. If, in 
addition, the fruit is carefully wrapped in these com- 
partments, the very finest type of packing will result. 
To one who has not followed the market closely, all 
these suggestions will seem to be expensive and un- 
profitable ; and this is certainly true of everything 



Packing Equipments. 425 

but fche best quality of fruits. Tlii.* common run of 
goods will not bear the expense of extra care in the 
handling and marketing, and this is the kind of fruit 
which it does not pay to grow. If one makes a 
study of the market he will soon come to feel that 
the package and the packing cut a most impor- 
tant figure in the sales. The package really adver- 
tises the fruit more than the fruit advertises itself; 
and it is a well-known business principle that an 
article which is first-class will stand very heavy 
advertising, but no other will. 

PACKING -HOUSES AND APPLIANCES. 

The subject of packing- houses is one which can- 
not be treated specifically for each grower, from the 
fact that every person has a different ideal, and he 
may grow fruits for a market which demands par- 
ticular treatment of the products. Amongst the 
best types of packing -houses, w^hich one generally 
meets in the east, are those used by the grape 
men ; and if one studies the question, he will find 
that there are two distinct types of packing -houses 
in use in the grape regions. One tj'pe is a com- 
bined packing and storage house, and is used very 
largely where Catawbas are grown, and where the 
grapes are often stored for some time before they 
are marketed. The other type of house is that 
w^hich is used in the Concord regions, and which 
is simph" a half-way station between the field and 
the railway station, — a shelter place for the pack- 



426 The Principles of Fruit -growing, 

iiig of the grapes, — and is not used for the storage 
of the fruit. 

One of the best of the storage type of packing- 
houses (used for holding the fruit until winter or 
later) may be described as follows:* It is built on 
a side hill, and the basement or cellar is used 
for the storage of grapes, the first floor is used 
for packing, and the second floor or attic for the 
storage of baskets, crates, and the like. This build- 
ing measures 25x60 feet over all. The foundation 
walls are 24 inches thick, and the cellar is pro- 
vided with ample means of ventilation by outside 
windows, and also by means of a chimney which 
runs from near the middle of the cellar up through 
the roof. The floor is of dirt. By means of care- 
ful attention to ventilation, this cellar can be kept 
to 50° or below during September and October, and 
is frost -proof during the winter. The windows are 
provided with close-fitting screens, to keep out rats 
and squirrels. This cellar will hold easily fifty tons 
of grapes in the picking trays. The first floor is 
divided into two rooms, the front one being a pack- 
ing-room 25 feet square, and the back room being 
a storage and shipping department 25x35 feet. 
This packing -room is provided with heat, and is 
lighted by seven large windows. The floor above 
the cellar is double and made of l/4-inch matched 
pine, with an abundant air space between the two 
layers. This, therefore, protects the cellar from 



*Bull. 117, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



Packing -houses. 



427 



sudden fluctuations of temperature. The buildint^ is 
also shaded, especially from the afternoon sun, by 
large trees. This building can be erected for about 
$1,200. It has 18 -foot posts, a tin roof, the two 




Fig. y(». A good type of packing-house. 

rooms in the first floor ceiled with pine, but the 
top floor not ceiled. 

The other type of packing* -house (used only for 
purposes of packing and of storing packages) is ad- 
mirably^ illustrated by Figs. 99 and 100, which are 
pictures of the house of W. W. Pettit, Brocton, 
New York. In this case there is no cellar, for the 
grapes are not to remain in the house more than 
a day or two at the longest, and they ordinarily 



428 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



pass directly through it on their way to the rail- 
way station. This is a house which can be built 
for about $500. Tlie main floor of the building is 
24x40 feet, and aside from this there is a drive- 
way, TF, under the same roof, and which measures 



// J^jQ 







>- 


y. 


^ 


^ 


^n > 


s; 


r^ 




•^ 




/■ 1 


1 




i 


<oft. -^ 



Fig. 100. Plan of the 40 ft. packing-house. 

11x30 feet. This driveway connects with the main 
floor by two doors. The front room, N, which is 
lighted by four windows in the front and one upon 
the side, and is 12x24 feet in size, is the packing- 
room. In the rear of this is a store-room, E^ for 
the grapes. The half -story above is used for baskets 



Packing Apptiances. 



429 



and crates, and these are delivered into the pack- 
ing-room by a shiite. This building will accommo- 




Fig. 101. The packing and sorting of grapes. 



date ten packers, and will easily handle the grapes 
from fifty acres of land. 

In the packing of grapes, the greatest care is 
required to keep the fruit clean and fresh, to pre- 
vent the bunches from being broken, and to pre- 
serve the bloom upon the fruit. It is essential 



430 



The Frinciples of Fruit-growing. 



that the house should be kept thoroughly clean and 
sweet at all tunes. It is especially important that 
the storage room for the baskets and crates should 
be dry and airy, in order that the baskets may 




Fig. 102. Revolving paf'king-talde of Uie Keiika grapp region, T^J'ew York. 

not become moldy or musty; and this room should 
also be kept darkened, to prevent the baskets from 
coloring. 

In Fig. 101 is shown the packing room in Mr. 
Pettit's house. In this case, the picking trays are set 
before the packers upon an inclined table, and the 



Packing -houses. 



431 



packer handles the grapes from this tray into a 
basket which she places at her left. When the 
l)asket is filled, it is placed upon a flat ledge in 
front of her (R), and is taken off l)y an attendant, 
who places the baskets on a trnck and rolls them 
into the back room, from which the}- are delivered 
to the wagon. Empty baskets are stored npon the 
nigh slinlf C, iuid these are replenished by an atteii- 




Fig. 10^5. Pafking-hoase of the Hale oifhards, Georgia 



dant, as necessary. When the tray is empty, it is 
slid through an opening just in front of the packer 
and underneath the flat ledge upon which she places 
her finished baskets. Fig. 102 shows a packing- table 
in the packing -room of George C. Snow, Penn Yau, 
New York. This is a circular revolving table^ about 



432 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



which the packers sit. The packer holds the bas- 
ket in her lap and takes the grapes off the table, 
which is turned as fresh fruit is put upon it. This 
device allows the packer to select from a large quan- 
tity of fruit. 

The packing -house of the great Hale orchards in 
Georgia is shown in Fig. 103, and an interior view 




Fig, 104. Packiug peaches in Georgia. 



in Fig. 104. The latter picture is a peach-packing 
scene. 

The suggestions in the last few pages cover most 
of the points which it is necessary to consider in 
the construction of a packing -house. The grower 
will be able to apply them to his own conditions. 
A simple temporary shed erected in the orchard is 
often made to serve all the purposes of a packing- 
house. A cloth tent is often used. The appliances 




Sorting -tables and Presses. 433 

which are needed in packing -houses, aside from 
packages and crates, are trucks, sorting -tables, barrel 
presses, and an abun- 
dance of baskets or 
barrels for the refuse 
fruit. 

Sorting -tables are 
of various patterns, 
but those which are 
used for apples, cran- 
berries (Fiff 105) ^^^- ^^^- Porting cranberries. 

and other firm fruits, consist of a table or tray 
about twice as long as broad, narrowed at one end, 
at which it is open to allow the good fruit to roll 
off into a basket or barrel. The fruits are poured 
from the picking baskets on to the table, and a num- 
ber of persons standing on either side remove the 
litter and the inferior fruit, whilst they work the good 
fruit on to the outlet. 

Of barrel presses there are several styles. The 
most expeditious is some kind of lever press (like 
No. 3 in Fig. 106), but more pressure can be ob- 
tained with a screw press (7), and such an im- 
plement holds itself in place whilst the head is 
being adjusted. Fig 106 (on page 434) contains 
illustrations of all the types of barrel presses which 
are in common use. They are: 1, home-made lever 
press; 2, Climax lever press; 3, improved lever press; 
4, stand-up barrel header; 5, packing press (for pack- 
ing and baling goods) ; 6, stirrup press ; 7, iron 
screw press. 

CC ' 




Fig. 106. Barrel presses. (See pagb 433, 



Advice About Storing Fruits. 435 

STORING FRUITS. 

It is impossible to draw the line between a 
packing -house and a storage -house. In fact, the 
same structure may be used for both purposes, as 
the grape house is which has been described in 
the preceding pages. There is more and more 
necessity that the fruit-grower should provide the 
means of storing fruits, when prices are low and 
competition is very sharp. 

General advice. — As a rule, it will not pay the 
fruit-grower to build iced storage or chemical store- 
houses for his fruit, unless he has a very large 
acreage. This cold-storage of fruit is really a busi- 
ness by itself, and requires a great deal of care 
and skill to carry it through successfully, and a 
discussion of it is foreign to the purpose of this 
book. If the grower desires to keep his produce 
until late winter or spring, and has no cellars or 
natural storage place, it will ordinarily pay him 
best to put it into some commercial cold-storage 
house, and to pay so much per package for the 
storing of it. 

For temporary storage, however, these remarks 
will not apply. Every person who grows fruits, 
especially perishable kinds, should have some kind of 
a building in which he may place the fruits over 
night, or for two or three days, when waiting for 
the market to improve, or for the purpose of cool- 
ing Them down before shipment. These houses are 
ordinarily cooled merely by cold air. They are often 



436 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

known as ''chill rooms." A room which is well 
fitted for the keeping of butter in warm weather 
may also be used to advantage for fruit. In some 
cases, arrangements can be made for the use of ice 
to reduce the temperature for the time being. If 
one has a considerable quantity of fruit, and has a 
large cellar which is well adapted to the keeping 
of apples, he can often store his crop to advantage 
when the price is low in the fall ; ])ut the grower 
must bear in mind that the risks in the storing 
of fruit are very great. In the first place, markets 
may not improve as he thinks they ought ; and, 
again, the fruit may not keep well. Even when 
the fruit does keep well, there is frequently a large 
shrinkage, and the expense of re -packing and han- 
dling is a large item. The fruit which is designed 
to be kept for the late winter or spring trade should 
be carefully sorted when it is put in storage, and 
especial care should be taken that none of the fruit 
is over -ripe. (See page 379.) Fruit which is in 
proper condition for storing when it is picked may 
be ruined for long -keeping quality by allowing it 
to lie in the sun or in a warm place for a day 
or two. 

Neighborhood or cooperative storage is often 
practicable, without, however, attempting to establish 
a true cold-storage business. C. H. Perkins* has 
presented the advantages of such an enterprise to 
the fruit-growers of New York, as a means of sav- 

*"Cold Storage for Neighborhoods," Proc. 39th Meeting W. N. Y. Hort. 
Soc, 41 (1894), 



Neighborhood Storage. 437 

ing the fruit crop over gluts, and especially of hold- 
ing the market from western competition. This 
would no doubt prove to be a very useful method 
for the north for the late fall and winter fruit, 
but it would probably not be practicable for the 
south, or for holding the summer fruits. "If, there- 
fore," he writes, "every neighborhood in western New 
York had a c^old- storage house for barreled apples, 
that would protect against frost and hold anywhere 
from ten thousand to twenty thousand barrels, run, 
if need be, on the same cooperative principles and 
methods as the cheese factories of this state, or the 
fruit associations of California or Michigan, would 
not the result be very much more satisfactory to 
the grower than present methods ?***** 
Such a building may be of moderate cost and yet 
substantial and durable, and need not always be 
located at the nearest railroad. How manj' have 
ever figured oi- thought of the cost to the grower 
of transporting his apples to the railroad or canal 
station from his farm during the months of Sep- 
tember or October, when there is much work to do 
and time is of most value f Say that the grower 
is five or eight miles from said station. I believe 
that for less cost per barrel the dealer located in 
western New York will deliver the same apples in 
barrels at Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth, Philadelphia, 
New York, or Boston. There are quite a number of 
apple houses in western New York owned by dealers, 
but there are few that were built for the express pur- 
pose of safely storing av)ples. I have a building that 



438 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

was built for the storage of nursery stock, and in which 
I have had apples stored all winter. It is frost- 
proof, built on a heavy stone wall twenty -four inches 
thick and three feet high. On this wall were set up 
two by four scantling ; these were sheathed with inch 
hemlock, then covered with tarred building paper, 
then furred out with strips four inches deep, and 
again covered as before, until the wall has three air 
spaces. The roof is constructed in the same way to 
protect against frost. Light and ventilation come 
from two rows of windows at the top. The roof is 
gravel. The outside is covered with novelty siding. 
The building has double or two sets of doors at each 
end, and a driveway through the center. It is 
painted inside and out, is one hundred feet long by 
forty feet wide, the whole cost was $1,400, and it 
would afford storage for ten thousand barrels. The 
atmosphere is the same inside as out, only that the 
building is frost -proof and can be run in the winter 
months with a variation of not over 12°; there is no 
smell of a cellar whatever, and stock always keeps 
perfectly. Such a house, or a better one, in a neigh- 
borhood, would pay four years out of five, at least 
50 cents per barrel over all cost of labor for han- 
dling, sorting, insurance, etc., and this year where 
there were apples, it would have paid $1 to $1.50 per 
barrel." 

Requisites for domestic storage. — The home storage 
establishment is generally either a cellar or a half- 
cellar, although, by taking particular pains in the 
construction of air spaces, a building entirely above 



Features of a Storage House. 439 

ground may be made to answer the purpose. A 
building wholly on the surface, however, is more 
likely to give variable temperatures than one which is 
partially under ground. An ordinary house cellar, if 
it has good ventilation and is not too dry or too 
warm, may answer very well for the storage of fruit; 
but it is ordinarily best, both for purposes of storage 
and for health, that the fruit cellar should be a sepa- 
rate structure if products are to be stored in any 
quantity. The requisites of a good storage cellar for 
fruit are chiefly four : protection from frost ; the 
ability to secure a uniform or unvarying temperature 
of 40° or below ; facilities for ventilation ; and air 
which is moist enough to prevent evaporation. 

The protection from frost is secured either by 
sinking the building below the surface of the soil, or 
by making two to four air spaces in the walls in 
that portion which stands above the earth. The ven- 
tilation should include facilities for removing the warm 
and impure air from somewhere near the top of the 
structure. Some kind of a shaft or chimney construc- 
tion, with a valve or shutter which can be opened or 
closed as necessary, will answer this purpose. In 
buildings which are above ground, it will be often 
necessary to provide some means of taking in the 
cold air near the bottom of the building, especially 
before the cold weather of winter sets in and after 
the warm weather of spring begins. Cold air being 
heavier than warm air, it settles upon the surface of 
the ground in still nights, and if the floor of the 
storage structure is two or three feet below the top 



440 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

of the ground, this cold air may be drained into the 
building by means of flues which are laid through 
the walls, the outer ends standing just above the 
earth. Six -inch sewer pipes, at intervals about the 
building, answer this purpose admirably. In a build- 
ing thirty feet wide and seventy feet long, three of 
these valves along either side, and one upon either 
end, are probably sufficient for all ordinary require- 
ments. Sub - ventilation is sometimes recommended, 
and may often work to good advantage. This is 
secured by running a long pipe from near the bottom 
of a cellar storage out to the surface of the ground 
six or more rods away. This pipe has a valve at 
the outer end, or at least some protecting structure 
to prevent the leaves and litter from blowing into 
it, and it is ordinarily best, also, to have a valve 
at the inner end. Inasmuch as the earth about this 
subterranean passage is not frozen during the win- 
ter, cold air maj^ be drawn in from the outside 
and be warmed up above the freezing point in its 
passage through the tube. This type of ventilation 
has been used with success in cellars designed for 
the wintering of bees. It should always be remem- 
bered that cold air contains less moisture than warm 
ail' does. When very cold air is admitted, therefore, 
moisture is rapidly taken up when its temperature 
rises, and the cellar may be made too dry. It is 
advisable, therefore, to raise the temperature of such 
air to nearly its ultimate or required degree before 
it enters the storage room. 

Cellars which are very dry cause the fruit ta 



Keeping Fruit on Trays. 441 

shrivel. Those rooms in which there is a natural 
sand or gravel bottom ordinarily keep fruit in the 
best condition. Cement bottoms are very apt to be 
too dry. Running water is very often desirable in a 
fruit cellar, not only because it furnishes moisture to 
the air, but also because it is an equalizer of the 
temperature. One must be cautioned, however, that 
a cellar which is not properly ventilated will cause 
the fruit to mold and decay, if it is wet. In gen- 
eral, it is best to have means for supplying fresh 
air, and then keep the cellar simply moist, not wet. 
One should avoid drafts in the storage cellar, for 
currents of air are very likely to cause the fruit to 
lose moisture and to shrivel. 

Much is said about the keeping of fruit upon 
trays in cellars rather than in barrels or crates, but 
this must be determined by the character of the 
cellar as to temperature and moisture. In cellars 
which are too dry, the fruit should be left in the 
closed packages; biit if the air is moist and the tem- 
perature very low, the fruit may be placed upon 
racks or trays to the verj- best advantage. But iu 
any case, it should always be remembered that fruit 
which has been placed in storage for a month or 
more, should be re-sorted and re -packed before it is 
put upon the market. It has been said (page 436) 
that the best results in the storing of fruit are had 
when the product is very thoroughly sorted before 
it is put into the cellar, for even if the cellar is 
very nearly perfect for the keeping of the fruit, any 
ov^r-ripe or decayed specimens will very likely break 



442 The Principles of Fruit-growing, 

down, and spread the contamination to the entire 
sample. The fruit should be cooled down somewhat 
before it is placed in cold storage, especially if there 
is much of it, otherwise it raises the temperature 
of the compartment. 

The requisite features in a domestic iced storage 
house are set forth as follows by Hexamer : * "To 
preserve fruit or retard its ripening, it has to be 
stored in pure, dry, cold air. These conditions can 
be produced in various ways. But the simplest and 
least expensive method for farm use is to build a 
two -story ice house, the ground floor of which is for 
the storage of fruit and the upper for ice. The most 
important part of such a house is the proper con- 
struction of the dividing floor upon which the ice 
rests. The timbers, the size of which depends on the 
quantity of ice to be supported b}- them, are so ar- 
ranged as to have narrow openings between one 
another to permit the cold air from the ice cham- 
ber proper to descend to the storage room below, 
and also to facilitate the dripping of the water from 
the melting ice. 

"To prevent the water from falling on the fruit, 
an additional floor or roof has to be constructed 
under the dividing floor. The best material for this 
purpose is galvanized, corrugated sheet iron, arranged 
so that all the water which falls upon it flows into a 
gutter connected with a leader, through which it is 
carried into the main drain. Dryness in the storage 



*Dr. F. M. Hexamer, "Cold Storage Fruit House," Amer. Agric, Jan. 30. 
1897. 135. 



storage for Or apes. 448 

room being of prime importance, the floor should be 
cemented whenever existing conditions permit. Of 
course, ample provision has to be made for thorough 
drainage, ventilation and circulation of air. Several 
devices for the accomplishment of this have been 
patented, and an excellent non- patented plan is 
minutel}^ described and illustrated in Theron L. Hiles' 
book on the 'Ice Crop.' The general construction of 
the walls, roof, ventilation, etc., of such a storage 
house does not differ materially from that of ordinary 
ice houses. If the storage house is used much during 
hot weather, the greater part of the ice will probably 
have melted before the fall fruit comes in. It will 
therefore be necessary to have a reserve ice house 
near by, from which the storage house can be re- 
plenished." 

The requisites for keeping grapes during the 
winter are given as follows by George C. Snow:* 
"Any good building in which the temperature can be 
held even at about 35°, with ventilation as may be 
required, this to be determined by noting how the 
fruit is keeping, will be found available for grapes. 
No positive rules can be laid down. A cooling room, 
in which the fruit can be first cooled, is a necessity. 
If placed directly in cold storage, the temperature will 
be found to be raised rapidly by placing a quantity 
of warm fruit in the room. As even a temperature 
as possible is much the best. Grapes should not be 
packed in baskets for shipping before being stored. 
They should be ripe, as grapes do not mature after 

* Rural New-Yorker, Feb. 1, 16W) ; Bull. 117, Cornell Exp. Sta, 



444 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



picking. Niagara or any other variety can be held 
only for a limited time, some varieties longer than 
others." 

The following temperatures at which a cold stor- 
age company (Genesee Fruit Company, Rochester, New 
York) engages to hold certain products, will be in- 
teresting to the horticulturist: 



GOODS. 



Apples* 

Berries 

CanBed goods . . . , 

Celery 

Cherries 

Cranberries 

Dried berries .... 

Dried apples 

Dried corn 

Dates 

Evaporated apple; 

Figs 

Grapes 



Temp, 



40 
35 
3.5 
40 
33 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
36 



GOODS. 



Lemons 

Maple syrup 

Nuts 

Oranges 

Pears 

Peaches or plums . 

Prunes 

Quinces 

Raisins 

Vegetables 

Wine , 

Watermelons 



Temp. 



Storage hu tidings, — There are many fashions in 
which storage houses may be built for home use. 



* Apples are often carried as low as 30° . 

Note.— The director of the Genesee Fruit Company writes under date of 
May 22; 1897, as follows : "We carry apples at a temperature of 30 degrees, and 
we would advocate carrying them at 29 degrees for the first month in storage. 
Apples are going out of our warehouse in perfect condition ; in fact, there was 
one small lot, consisting of 198 barrels of Baldwins, which went out two weeks 
ago, and they were all run (or sorted), and the shrinkage occasioned by decay 
was 1% barrels. One of the most essential features in carrying apples is getting 
them ill storage directly after they ore picked from the trees, and we do not 
advocate receiving Greenings for storage after October 20^" 



Fruit -houses. 



445 




Fin. 107. Simple fruit-house. 



Pig. 107 shows a simple fruit -house, with tiers of 
trays upon either side of a central passage-way. The 
chimney and the area in the floor 
allow of change of air. Fig. 108 
is a fruit -house of the late Charles 
Downing, of pomological 
fame. Whatever the style 
of the fruit -house, the 
walls above the surface 
of the ground should be 
well provided with air- 
spaces. The aecompan}'- 
ing details of the con- 
struction of celery houses 
(Figs. 109, 110), will suf- 
ficiently explain some of the problems which should be 
considered.* "This structure has a brick foundation, 
and the roof is well provided with air chambers and 
paper linings, affording the best protection against 
cold. The additional large air chamber above the 
collar beams, with its separate windows, seems also 
desirable. There are large double doors at each end, 
and the space between each outer and inner door is 
large, and the connections are well arranged for the 
exclusion of cold air. It seems of sufficient interest 
to give a view of such a storage house ; but full 
details of construction may not be entered upon in 
this connection. It will be seen that Fig. 109. shows 
the construction of the peak and collar -beam (k) of 
the house, and also of the ventilator (1. 1). Fig. 110 



*B. M. Duggar, Bull. 132, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



446 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



shows the details of the roof construction. The plate 
(h) is held firmly to the wall by a tongue (i) let 
into the brick work. The rafter is b. On this is a 
thickness of sheathing upon either side (a, c), with 




Fig. 108. Cliarles Downing's fniit-house. 



an air-space at e, and outer sheathing at g, and 
building paper at d and f." Buildings made upon 
this plan, or one similar to it, are efficient for the 
storage of either vegetables or fruits. 

Waugh* gives the bill of lumber entering into the 
fruit-house in Fig. Ill (page 449) as follows: 

•"Apple Growing in Grand Isle County," Bull, 55, Vermont Exp. Sta. 



448 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



Bill of Lumber for Apple House. 



3,500 feet wall boarding. 

3,000 " roof boarding. 

3,500 " ceiling (inside). 

7,200 " floor boards (double floors). 

4,000 " clap-boards. 

25 bundles lath, 

22 >^ squares slate. 

Ol'TSlOE 



200 feet 


5-in. crown mold. 










190 " 


3-in. bed mold. 










300 '^ 


"sxlO mold for frieze and facia. 


!- 


Ijineal measure. 


200 " 


Jsx 7 base and water tables. 


1 




200 " 


J^xl2 planers. 








J 






4 piece? 
4 " 


%x 5, 
'^x 6, 


15 feet. 
15 " 


i 


Corner boards. 




8 " 
16 " 


2 
2 


X 8, 

X 8, 


15 " 
13 " 


} 


Sills. 




56 " 
26 " 


2 


X 9, 
X 9, 


30 " 


1 


Floor joists. 




26 


iKx 9, 


19 •'' 




Collar ties to rafte 




100 " 
20 '•• 


3 
3 


X 4, 

X 4, 


14 " 
12 '' 


} 


Wall studs. 




56 •' 


2 


X 8, 


21 




Rafters. 




26 •' 
26 " 


2 

] 


X 6, 
X 6, 


10 '• 
8 




Braces. 




16 •' 


1 


X 4, 


13 " 




Ribbons. 




4 " 


2 


xl2. 


13 " 




Ridge poles. 



The owner of this house (T. L. Kinney) gives the 
following information (See Fig. 112): "The fruit 
house is built on high and dry ground. The cellar 
was three feet, and dirt taken from this was used to 
bank up around the wall. The wall is solid stone and 
mortar, is five feet high, two and one -half feet wide 



A Vermont Apple Rouse. 



449 



at the bottom, and two feet at the top ; two -inch 
plank for sills on this, bedded in mortar, doubled so 
as to break joints; two by four studding above this; 
outside of studding matched pine, then paper, and 
then clap -boards, painted; in middle of studding, lath 




Fig. 111. Apple house; from the islands of Lake Champlain. 

and plaster ; inside of studding, matched pine, then 
paper, and then one -half -inch sheathing, painted. 
This gives two hollow walls, or dead -air spaces. For 
ventilating, there is one ventilator from cellar to the 
observatory on top of building, which has four large 
window frames, with blinds, but no tight windows. 
The ventilator opens into both storage rooms. We 

DD 



450 



The Principles of Fruit-growing. 



have three eighteen -inch windows on east and west 
sides of building in the cellar, and three large win- 
dows in west side, next to store room. Both floors 
are double, with paper between, and the second room 
is ceiled overhead with matched spruce, and painted. 
The two windows on east side show in cut, with the 
outside doors. 

"About picking time, we begin to cool off the 
building by keeping open during westerly winds or 
cold waves, and closed as much as possible when it 
is warm. We try not to put in any fruit when the 
fruit is warm, but have it cool, if possible. In this 
way the air in the building is cool all the time. I 
have kept a partial daily record of the temperature in 
the cellar this winter (1896-7) since December 28, the 
results of which are as follows: 



CELLAR. 


SECOND ROOM. 


DATE. 


Temp. 


DATE. 


Temp. 


December 28 


35° Deo 
35 


ember 28 

" 29 


32° 


29 


33 


January 1 


36 Jan 


uary 1 


33 


" 2 


36 
36 


' 2 


35 


3 


3 


37 


4 


37 1 ' 


4 


38 


'' 7 


37 

37 li 




36 


11 


11 


35 


14 


36 1 ' 


' 14 


32 


17 


36 


17 


34 


19 


36 


19 


32 


23 


36 


23 


33 



A Vernwtif Applf House. 



451 



"It will be seen by this that the temperature 

ranges from 35 to 37° in the cellar, and from 32 to 

38° in the room above. This difference is occasioned 

by the cellar being nearly full of barrels of apples, 




Fig. 112. Details of house shown in Fig. 111. 



and the next room about half full; and we are pass- 
ing in and out to the second room every day, and 
some days many times. The doors are large and 
high up, and only common doors. We had no snow 
until the 21st of January this winter, and it has been 



452 The Principles of Fruit -growing. 

as cold as 18° below zero at two different times, and 
as low as 10° below zero several times. I have no 
fire except an oil stove, and have not used that yet. 
I think that winter apples will keep as well at a 
temperature of 36 as 32°; yet, I have no proof of it. 
I do not like to have the apples get too cold, as we 
have twelve miles to haul to the car; and if the 
fruit is kept too cold, it is more likelj^ to freeze 
on its long trip to market." 

A "new plan for the construction of a storage cel- 
lar" is given by Alwood:* 

"The winter storage of fruits and vegetables is a question 
of much importance ;in this state [Virginia] because of the 
wide range of temperature which prevails during that sea- 
son. Also, temporary summer storage is a subject worthy of 
careful attention, and may be to some extent solved by careful 
application of the principle explained in this article. The com- 
mon practice for winter storage largely in vogue over this 
state, is to bury such vegetables and fruits as are required for 
winter and spring use in outdoor pits. The particular method 
followed varies with the different kinds of crop to be preserved, 
but the essential facts are the same. This system of pitting 
can hardly be considered a success so far as relates to the main 
crops stored; viz., apples and potatoes. The essentials of win- 
ter storage for apples and potatoes are a low, dry, even tem- 
perature, and to secure this without artificial cold storage is a 
prqblem that cannot be met by the outdoor pit methods of 
burying these staple articles. These two crops are necessarily 
held by growers in considerable quantity for winter and spring 
use, and the problem of storing them in a convenient and suc- 
cessful manner is the one had in view in the discussion which 
follows. It may be well to state at the outset that we doubt 
the even partial success of the plan herein explained for all of 

*W. B. Alwood, Bull. 11, vol. iv., Va. Exp, Sta. 



Virginia Storage House. 453 

that portion of the state lying east of Piedmont. Several years 
since, we concluded to construct a simple storage cellar upon a 
plan which we once heard discussed, but had not seen carried 
into practice. In fact, our building is the first one constructed 
on this plan of which we have any knowledge. 

"The essential features involved in the storage building 
which we designed for this purpose are : First, a cellar exca- 
vated into a gently sloping hillside, carried into the bank far 
enough to place the cellar room entirely below the surface of 
the earth, and yet give opportunity to enter the cellar easily by 
an inclined way from the lower side of the slope ; secondly, a 
flue leading out from near the center of the floor of the cellar 
room, along the bank of the hillside for a considerable distance, 
with sufficient fall to make it act both as a drain pipe and a 
fresh air flue ; thirdly, ventilating flues placed at each end of 
the cellar room or elsewhere, as desired, and rising to the 
height necessary to give a sufficient draft to carry off rapidly 
the air from the cellar room whenever ventilation is desired. 

"The cellar room will better serve the purpose of cold stor- 
age if the excavation is carried back into the bank so as to 
make the floor twelve or fifteen feet below the lowest point of 
the adjacent hillside. In the case of the cellar built here, the 
excavation is only ten feet deep at the deepest point, but we 
are now satisfied that a greater depth would give better results. 
The principle of a subterranean air flue is the essential feature 
of this cellar. In its use we aim to secure a dry, even temper- 
ature in the cellar by admitting air as desired through this 
flue. It should be at least six inches in diameter and, we now 
think, should be laid, at a depth of eight or nine feet, along 
the bank of the hillside, for a distance of about five hundred 
feet. It is not necessary that this flue should lie in a straight 
line, but any departure from a straight line should be a gradual 
curve, so as to permit an unobstructed flow of air into the 
cellar. Situated at this depth, and having a length approxi- 
mately as stated above, the air flowing into the cellar through 
this flue will be in summer reduced, and in winter raised, to 
the temperature of the soil at the depth stated, which will 



454 



The Principles of Fruit -growing. 



approximate somewhere between 50° and 55° Fahr. during the 
entire year. The above statement is based upon the observed 
temperature of perennial springs in this vicinity. 

"From the foregoing it follows that if the air in the cellar 
becomes warmer than the air in the underground flue, it will 
rise through the ventilating flues, and the colder air will flow in 
from the supply fl'ie, as desired. The temperature of the cellar 
room can thus be approximately controlled to at least the 
neighborhood of 55° to 60° Fahr. The construction of the cellar 
is shown somewhat in detail in the drawings below. These 
figures are not intended as working drawings, but serve to 
bring out the essential ideas and plan of the structure suffi- 
ciently to enable any mechanic to carry them out on larger oi- 
smaller scale to suit the needs of the builder. Fig. 113 is a 




Fig. 113. Longitudinal section of Alwood's house. 



longitudinal section through the cellar room, and shows also a 
side elevation of the storeroom above. The two ventilators a a 
rise through the storeroom, and are six inches in diameter by 
fifteen feet long, thus insuring good draft. Thf air flue h 



Virginia Storage House. 



455 



enters under the foundation and discharges fresh air into the 
cellar room near the center. This flue is six inches in diam- 
eter, and theoretically should be extended far enough along the 
hillside to admit of tempering the air to the temperature of the 




t\'. z::^\\% 



Fig. 114. Groiiiid plan. 



surrounding earth while passing through it. The cellar built 
here has an air flue only one hundred and fifty feet long, and 
we have never been able to cool the air down below 60° Fahr. 
when the temperature of the outside air is above 70° Fahr. 

"The dotted line h h shows the contour of the hillside, and 
the line i shows the entry-way into the cellar. The entry-way 
should preferably be on the north side of the structure, and 
should be closed in by a vestibule, so as to protect the cellar- 
way from storm, and to prevent influence of outside temperature 
upon the atmosphere in the cellar. 

"The roof structure of vestibule is shown at d, and one of 
the side walls of the entry-way at e. The floor of the cellar 
// pitches slightly to the mouth of the air flue h, which serves 
as a drain pipe when one is needed. The cellar floor is made 
of broken stone and cement, and successfully checks the upward 
rise of ground water. The bins c c and c' on one side of the 
cellar room are shown, with dimensions. They are constructed 
of two by four scantling and one inch oak boards. At c' the 
facing on lower bin is shown in position. When we desire to 
fill the bins additional facing boards are used. The letters A: k 



456 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

at lower ends of ventilating flues indicate position of sliding 
dampers, by means of which the flow of air from the cellar is 
effectually controlled. "With the short flue used in the cellar 
here, we find that when the mercury remains below 20° Fahr. for 
any length of time the cellar will be reduced below freezing, 
unless the ventilators are closed. 

"The dimensions of the ground plan of the cellar are shown 
in Fig. 114. The letters so far as used always indicate the 
same part of the structure in the several figures. This figure 
shows the walls to be constructed of stone, which is unquestion- 
ably the proper material. In our building, which was con- 
structed to test the practicability of an idea new to this class of 
structures, expense was avoided so far as possible, and the walls 
are built of wood. The framing of the walls is constructed of 
two by four scantling framed into sills laid in broken stone and 
cement. The corner posts are four by four scantling. This 
frame is covered outside by a double sheathing of inch oak 
plank. The first course was put on diagonal and covered with 
strong builder's paper, and over this a perpendicular course of 
sheathing was put on. The whole structure was then literally 
soaked with crude petroleum, and the earth rammed in tight 
around the cellar story and banked up, so as to carry surface 
water away from the walls. Inside the walls were covered with 
inch oak boards, and the bins constructed as indicated in the 
drawings. The entry-way to the cellar is wide enough to admit 
of backing a horse -cart or wagon down into the cellar, so as to 
unload directly from it. This is a matter of much convenience 
to the workmen. The width of the cellar floor will permit of a 
row of barrels being placed in front of the bins and yet admit 
the vehicle. ********* 

"A series of observations on the range of temperature in the 
cellar was made during November, December, January and part 
of February, and the results are summarized below. The ven- 
tilator and the supply air flue were all left open from November 
1 to December 10. The outside air temperature registered 28° 
on the morning of the first of November, and the cellar showed 
a temperature of 46° Fahr. As the month progressed, a period 



Virginia Storage House. 457 

of warm weather set in, without a drop to freezing from the 7th 
until the 24th of the month. During this time the temperature 
often registered above 60° in the shade, with maximum readings 
considerably higher. The cellar temperature varied just 12° for 
the entire month, reaching 58° on two occasions, but closing the 
month at 46°, with outside temperature at 34°. During Decem- 
ber the cellar temperature was reduced quite steadily from 45° to 
38°, the daily variations being at most 2°. Outside temperature 
varied considerably, but the range was between 15° and 46°. 
Quite a number of observations was made on the working of the 
supply flue and the ventilators. The tests made showed that air 
passed through the one hundred and fifty feet supply flue in 
thirty to forty seconds, and the ventilators could be depended 
upon at all times to keep up a movement of air in the cellar so 
as to draw a fresh supply. In fact, during the coldest weather we 
frequently closed the ventilators to prevent the too rapid lowering 
of the temperature in the cellar. The tests showed that this short 
flue could not be depended upon to raise the air to a proper 
temperature when the mercury outside was at 15° or lower. Our 
observations showed that the air was, under these circumstances, 
raised about 20°, varying, of course, with conditions. During 
January further experiments showed that we could quite easily 
reduce the cellar temperature to 35° when the outside air regis- 
tered 15° to 20°. However, the building proves to be lacking in 
two essentials to hold the cellar temperature stable; viz., it is 
not deep enough in the earth, and the floor between it and the 
tool-room above is not properly laid. This floor is made double, 
of half- inch stuff, while we now see that the cellar-room should 
also be ceiled in the best possible manner, to prevent interference 
by outside changes of temperature. The total range in the cellar 
during January was 35° to 42°. This result was, however, se- 
cured by carefully watching the conditions, so as to admit cold 
air during the night or periods of low temperature and then clos- 
ing the flues when the outside temperature would act injuriously 
upon the temperature of the cellar. With the temperature fluc- 
tuations which prevail in this region, much attention is necessary 
to properly control the conditions in the cellar." 



458 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

Alcoholic vapor as a fruit -preservative. — In connec- 
tion with cold storage, it may be possible to experi- 
ment with the "new process for keeping fruit fresh," 
which was published in 1895 by the Department of 
State (Bureau of Statistics, by Henry P. DuBellet, 
Consul at Rheims, France), and distributed by the 
Division of Pomology of the Department of Agricul- 
ture: 

"The great difficulty experienced in preserving fruits in their 
natural state is such that the dealers who make the attempt of 
furnishing them out of season are compelled, on account of the 
heavy losses they sustain, to sell their goods at prices which ren- 
der it impossible for the great majority of families to place fresh 
fruits on their tables during the winter 'months. The high prices 
which fresh fruits command on the city markets increase day by 
day from the time they are gathered, and have induced orchard 
and vine owners to run many risks in order to keep their fruits 
as long as possible before offering them for sale. And it is not 
surprising that no pains, efforts, and sacrifices are spared to 
reach the coveted result, when it is known that during these last 
years, first-class grapes sold from 2 to 4 francs (38.6 to 77.2 
cents) per kilogram (2.2 pounds) from September to November, 
that they were worth 8 francs ($1.53.4) and as much as 12 francs 
($2.31.6) in February and March, and 14 francs ($2.70) in April 
and May. 

"These exorbitant prices show plainly how imperfect are yet 
the means employed for keeping fruits fresh, how few must be 
the successful efforts, and how many the difficulties encountered. 
The solution of this question is, therefore, of great interest to 
all, and the result of the experiments made in the latter part of 
the year 1894 and lately reported to the Horticultural Society of 
Soissons by Mr. A. Petit, chief of the laboratory of horticultural 
researches at the National Horticultural School of Versailles, de- 
serves the attention and consideration of fruit-growers through- 
out the United States, 



Alcoholic Vapor to Preserve Fruit. 459 

"Impressed with the powerful action of alcoholic vapors on the 
mold which generally appears on the surface of fruits in a damp 
atmosphere, Mr. Petit noticed that pears and apples kept for sev- 
eral months in a surrounding saturated with vapors of water and 
alcohol, even were they at the beginning in a state of decay, 
showed no signs of mold, while fruits in every particular identi- 
cally similar to the former, stored under the same conditions, but 
not exposed to the action of alcoholic vapors, were entirely cov- 
ered with it. 

"Taking advantage of this observation, Mr. Petit applied the 
principle to the preservation of fruits in general, and most par- 
ticularly to grapes, because, more than othei-s, the latter are sub- 
ject to mold. It was to be foreseen that grapes kept, from the 
day they are cut off the vines, in an atmosphere saturated with 
vapors of water and alcohol would, by the retarding of the sweat- 
ing period, not only remain free from mold, but would even re- 
tain their natural aspect. Consequently, should the temperature 
1)6 constant and low, the preservation could be maintained long 
and well. 

"On the 3Ist of October, 1894— that is, very late in the season 
and at a very unfavorable time — Mr. Petit placed, with other 
fruits and a bottle filled with 100 cubic centimeters (61 cubic 
inches) of alcohol at 96°, some bunches of grapes known as 
■Chasselas de Fontainebleau,' fresh from the vine, in a brick 
recipient in the form of a parallelopiped, cemented inside and 
closed as hermetically as possible by a common wooden door. 
In two similar recipients contiguous to the first, one of which 
was kept open and the other closed, but without alcohol, were 
stored similar fruits from the same trees and vines. The fruits 
were laid on wood shavings. The recipients were built in a very 
damp cellar, the temperature of which varied regularly from 10° 
to 8° C. (50° to 46f° F.) during the whole time the experiment 
lasted. 

"On November 20, the grapes placed in the recipent left open, 
and especially so those in the closed recipient without alcohol, 
were mostly rotten and covered with mold, and were immediately 
removed. In the recipient containing the ]>ottle of alcohol, thf 



460 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

grapes were beautiful ; on one bunch, two grapes had turned 
brown, but were firm, full, and free of mold; they did not taste 
at all sour, thus differing essentially from moldy grapes, espe- 
cially those subject to Penicillium glaucum . The hair hygrometer 
in the recipient registered 98°. On December 7, the bunches of 
grapes in the recipient containing the alcohol had kept their fine 
aspect ; on most of them, however, one or two grapes had turned 
brown, and were in the same condition as those above referred to. 
On December 24, same results ; on most of the bunches could 
be seen one or two grapes commencing to decay. At the end 
of nearly two months, each bunch had lost but from two to four 
grapes each and all were in a perfect state of preservation, the 
stalks being perfectly green and the grapes firm, full, and savory, 
and having all the qualities of fresh -cut grapes. 

"At the conclusion of the experiment, 28 cubic centimeters 
(17 cubic inches) of alcohol at 60° remained in the bottle out of 
the 100 cubic centimeters (61 cubic inches) at 96°, but, as Mr. 
Petit remarks, the door of his recipient had not been built with 
great care and did not close hermetically, hence a useless con- 
sumption of alcohol. 

"This process offers many advantages. It is simple, easy of 
application, and cheap, and, if adopted by our fruit-growers, 
would allow them not only to hold their fine fruits until they can 
dispose of them at a fair price, but would also insure them hand- 
some profits during the winter months." 

Beckwith makes the following note* upon this 
method : " For the purpose of testing the process as 
described in the above circular, two fully ripened 
branches of Norfolk grapes were placed, together 
with two ounce bottles filled with alcohol, upon a 
large pane of glass and covered with a glass bell 
jar. The grapes thus prepared were placed upon a 
table in my laboratory, where they remained until 
December 18, perfectly sound and plump in appear- 

* Eighth Auu. Rep. Del. Exp. Sta., 110. 



The Grower and the Consumer. 461 

ance, but had changed to a slightly darker brown 
color. The flesh was sound and firm, and still re- 
tained nearly its normal flavor. The grapes re- 
mainded under the treatment until February 10, 
when they were removed. At this date, nearly all 
of the grapes were firm and plump, a few having 
become somewhat shriveled. Thej' had a peculiar 
alcoholic taste, having entirely lost their normal 
flavor. The flesh was very firm, and of a light 
brown color. The above was, of course, a severe 
test of the process for keeping fruit fresh, and 
could not be considered a success. It is possible 
that by placing the fruit in a cool apartment it 
could be preserved for a considerable length of time 
without any great expense." 

SHIPPING, AND REACHING THE CONSUMER. 

The grower and the consumer. — The means to be 
employed in reaching the consumer are such per- 
sonal matters that little specific advice can be given 
upon the subject ; and the suggestions which are 
here made are not meant to apply to the buyers 
of fruit, nor to those growers who sell their fruit 
to itinerant buyers. It should first be said that the 
fruit itself is the best business card which the 
grower can have, in the long run. Fruit which is 
well grown and well packed is already virtually sold. 
If the consumer is convinced of the honesty and 
good faith of the grower and the packer, then his 
suspicions are allayed, and he is willing to purchase 



462 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

freely, and at a fair price. If the grower's name 
is upon the package, it becomes a guaranty of the 
quality of the fruit, and the consumer buys confi- 
dently. If, in addition to this, there is some neat 
and unique label attached to the package, the con- 
sumer will be convinced that his grower is not 
only willing to be responsible for the quality of the 
fruit, but that he is also a man of business in- 
stincts. It has recently been remarked that the 
Canadian apples which are shipped into the Ameri- 
can markets bring a better price than the domestic 
products, and very largely for the reason that the 
law demands that the fruit should be marked 
"Canadian grown," and the grower ordinarily places 
his name upon the parcel. The bujer in such case 
knows who is to be held responsible for the prod- 
uct in case it does not come uj) to his expecta- 
tions. The time is certainlj- coming when an in- 
ferior grade of fruit cannot be put upon the market 
with profit. Competition is gradually increasing, 
and it is only the better grades which can pay for 
the expense of shipping and packages and selling, 
and leave a margin of profit to the grower. 

The gist of the successful distribution and sell- 
ing of fruit lies in searching out the best markets, 
and then in finding out what the consumer wants. 
This can be done only by giving as much atten- 
tion to the market end of the business as to the 
distinctly agricultural end of it. The grower who 
expects to handle his own fruit directly should 
visit the markets, and should take particular pains 



Finding a Market. 463 

to determine the especial types and brands of fruit 
which the consumers in that market require. It is 
generally true that the fruit-grower raises whatever 
comes handy, and sells it if he can. Tt would bp 
better business to determine what the market is 
likelj' to demand, and then to grow the article that 
is wanted. The essence of modern trade is the 
specialization of business and the individualizing of 
the consumer. The person who has much fruit of 
good quality to sell should begin to look up his 
markets some weeks in advance of the market sea- 
son ; and he will ordinarily do well to sell some- 
v/hat by sample. Regulation packages, with his ac- 
customed grade of fruit, may be sent here and there 
to dealers and consumers, to represent the product 
which he has for sale. Much of the success of 
this type of marketing depends upon the quantity 
which the grower can provide. Dealers ordinarily 
demand that the grower furnish them with stated 
quantities of stated varieties ; and if the grower 
cannot do this he may be unable to hold his cus- 
tomer, and must simply mr'^t the vagaries of an 
incidental trade. The grower or shipper should 
notify his dealer in advance as to the amount 
and quality of fruit which will be likely to reach 
him at any given time. The dealer is then able 
to inform his customers and to find an outlet for 
the product. It should be remarked that this 
matter of finding a market is a perennial enter- 
prise ; that is, it is one which must be renewed 
every year, for the market of one year may not 



464 The Principlfs of Fruit-growing. 

be the best market for the following year. The 
market details should be followed up with the same 
thoroughness which the grower gives to the new 
development in varieties, and in means of contend- 
ing with fungi and insects. 

The selection of the middleman, through whom 
the fruits are to be sold, is one of the most im- 
portant features in the whole range of fruit market- 
ing. The first requisite is that this man should be 
honest and capable. Then the grower should place 
great confidence in his judgment, for, as he is 
nearer the point of consumption, his advice should 
be worth much more than the judgment of one 
who is far away. Too many growers are guided 
m their selection of a merchant by high quotations 
and flattering letters which are sent out at the be- 
ginning of the fruit season, but it is often true 
that the man who at the beginning of the season 
makes the most moderate and conservative quota- 
tions, is the one who secures the most profit for 
the grower in the end.* 

If one is to reach special and personal markets, 
the small package is nearly always advisable ; but 
in the wholesale and impersonal methods of market- 
ing, the large package will no doubt prove to be 
the most economical, not only because it costs less 
for a certain quantity of fruit, but because the ex- 
pense of packing is less. In the early days of 
commercial fruit shipping in this country, the large 

*For a sketch of the rise of the auction system of selling fruits in this 
Qouutry, see Annals of Horticulture for 1892, p. 40. 



Sizes of Packages. 465 

package for peaches and other tender fruits was 
commonly used. Peaches were shipped almost wholly 
in bushel baskets. With the increase and speciali- 
zation of the business, however, smaller packages 
were in demand, and in some of the largest peach 
regions of the country, the product was finally 
shipped in fifth and sixth -bushel baskets. Now that 
the production has come to be enormous, however, 
and the returns to the individual grower are com- 
paratively light, there has again arisen a demand 
for the large package. All this is well illustrated 
in the Lake Michigan region, in which the bushel 
basket has recently come into great use. The prob- 
ability is that if the low price of grapes continues 
for a few years, there will arise a great demand 
for a larger package. The individual grower who 
has a special market to reach, however, will still 
find that the small package is as useful as ever, 
and it may perhaps have an added advantage be- 
cause of its contrast with the larger ones in com- 
mon use. There is likely to be, therefore, a differ- 
entiation in the use of fruit packages, tending upon 
the one side towards a larger wholesale package, 
and on the other towards a small retail and per- 
sonal package. 

It should be said in passing that one reason why 
the small package falls into disfavor is because the 
fruit is so completely packed by hand that there is 
a great temptation on the part of the grower to 
include fruits of poor quality, or at least not to 
keep up the standard of an arbitrary grade. When 

EE 



466 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

large packages are used, and the grades are not so 
carefully made, there is less reason for finding fault 
with a few poor fruits. It is also true that many of 
the packages, especially in the handling of peaches, 
have been too small to allo^v of thoroughly honest 
packing. This is true of the fifth and sixth -bushel 
baskets especially. They are either too high or too 
low to allow a given number of full tiers of fruit 
to be placed in them, and in order to bring the top 
layer up to its required height, it is often necessary 
to insert a layer of small fruits somewhere below 
the top ; and this small fruit is commonly placed in 
the middle, because the packer cannot always dis- 
cover if he must use it until the package is par- 
tially filled. 

In the distribution of fruit, it should be re- 
membered that the establishing of a reputation for 
the fruit is quite as important as the securing of 
a remunerative price for the present samples; there- 
fore, the inferior fruits and culls should be kept 
in the home markets, or manufactured into cider or 
other secondary products ; or, if shipped, they should 
be placed upon the market without guaranty and 
without the grower's name. They are then sold 
simply upon their merits, without the recommenda- 
tion of the grower's name or any attractive label 
or description. 

Refrigerator cars. — Fruit which is of superior 
quality will pay for considerable extra effort in 
transportation. If it is of a perishable nature, and 
the market is more than six or eight hours away, 



Befriytnffor Cars. 467 

it may pay to ship in iced cars, particularly if the 
weather is very warm. In shipping fruit in iced 
cars, it is important to know that the car should 
be iced some time in advance of its receiving the 
fruit. This is for the puri)()se of completeh" cool- 
ing off the car. The ice should be put in at least 
six hours in advance of the loading, if possible, and 
a longer time is very often advisable. The trans- 
portation companies should be notified in advance of 
the number and route of the cars which are ship- 
ping, in order that the ice may be renewed at the 
necessary intervals. It may be said, also, that the 
car should not be completely filled with fruit. The 
upper part of the car is apt to be very hot, 
especially in summer, and if space is left above 
the fruit there is better opportunity for ventilation. 
About three hundred l)ushels of fruit in bushel 
packages should be the limit of the amount in any 
one car. 

Earle writes* as follows upon shipping m re- 
frigerated cars : 

■^Many difficulties and much prejudice were formerly en- 
countered in shipping fruits under refrigeration. Dealers and 
buyers were afraid to handle fruits that had been on ice, 
claiming that they would melt down and spoil as soon as 
they were removed to the warmer air. This belief was wide- 
spread and deeply seated, and it has taken much time and 
many practical demonstrations to fully convince the trade of 
its falsity. It probably originated in attempts to save fruit 
that was already over-ripe, and on the verge of spoiling, by 
placing it in the ice-box. Such fruit will be preserved for 

*F. S Earle, Bull. 79, Ala. Exp. Sta. 



468 The PrhicipUs of Fntif-f/ratviny. 

some time, if kept cold enough, for cold arrests the growth 
of the organisms of decay. The decay is only arrested, how- 
ever, for these organisms are not killed by the cold, and as 
soon as such fruit is again brought into a warm atmosphere 
they rapidly complete its destruction. If, however, the fruit 
is taken from the field at the proper stage of maturity, and 
is placed at once in a refrigerator ear, the cold prevents the 
beginning of incipient decay; and the fruit will arrive at 
its destination in a condition to keep almost as long after 
taking it from the car as it would have kept in the open 
air at the time it was picked. Strawberries must be in the 
best possible condition, and the weather not too hot, for them 
to stand thirty-six hours' transportation by express; or, in 
other words, for them to reach market in good condition on 
the second morning after picking. In the writer's experience, 
strawberries have been repeatedly sent from southern Illinois 
to Detroit, a three-days' run, by refrigerator freight, and have 
been successfully reshipped by express to Canadian points that 
were not reached till the second morning after leaving Detroit. 
"Again, no fruit is more perishable than a fully ripened 
peach; but peaches fully mellow, and ready to eat, have been 
put in refrigerator cars in California, and, after a six-days' 
run to Chicago, have been reshipped by express to New York, 
reaching there in condition to bring good prices. Of course, 
to endure such severe tests, it is necessary to have the fruit 
very carefully assorted and packed. A very few specked 
peaches or rotting strawberries would spoil an entire package 
before reaching so distant a market. Good judgment, too, is 
necessary in picking fruit at the proper stage of maturity for 
refrigerator shipment. Of course, it should not be too ripe, 
but the mistake is much more often made of picking it too 
green. In shipping by freight in open cars, it is often nec- 
essary to pick rather green, but with most fruits this is done 
at great sacrifice of quality. Under refrigeration, fully ma- 
tured ripe fruit will keep better than that which is grass 
green. This is an important point in favor of refrigeration, 
and one that many growers do not understand, for it enables 



Earle on Refrigerator Cars. 469 

fruit to be put on the market after its full flavor and qual- 
ity has been developed. The flat, insipid quality, and lack 
of flavor so often noticed in California fruits on the eastern 
markets, comes very largely from the pernicious habit of green 
picking. A peach that is ripe enough to be fully mellow is 
hard to handle without bruising, but they should hang on the 
tree till fully grown and colored. A peach that would be 
mellow if left on the tree till to-morrow, is in just the right 
condition to pick to-day. Pears, on the other hand, should 
be picked green, at least ten days to two weeks before soft- 
ening, and should be ripened in a close, dark place. For 
this reason, they can be safely shipped in tight boxes or 
barrels in open cars, unless it is intended to place them in 
cold storage on arrival. In this case, they should be shipped 
under refrigeration, to retard the ripening process as much 
as possible, 

'^Refrigerator cars were first built for the meat trade. The 
meat was hung in cold-storage houses, and was loaded into the 
ears at or near the freezing point. In a tight, well built car 
such a cold load would warm up very slowly, and a small 
amount of ice served to carry it safely to its destination. When 
it was attempted to use these cars for fruit, the hot load, fresh 
from the fields, soon melted the limited ice supply, and the cars 
invariably arrived heated and in bad order. To use these ears 
successfully, it was found necessary to build cooling houses at 
the shipping points, in which the fruit could be cooled off be- 
fore loading, as in the case of the meat. This caused delay in 
getting the fruit on the market, and made much additional ex- 
pense. It, however, demonstrated the success of refrigeration 
for the transportation of fruits, and soon cars were built espe- 
cially for the fruit trade, with sufficient ice capacity to cool off 
a load of hot fruit in transit, and to keep it cool. At the 
present time there are a number of refrigerator car lines, with 
specially built fruit cars, that are actively competing for the 
fruit and vegetable carrying trade; so that any point, having 
sufficient business to offer, can secure efficient car service, with 
competent men to look after the proper loading and icing of th<=> 



470 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

cars. Each line, of course, claims to have the best cars; and 
for difl&cult service there would certainly be considerable choice 
between them, but with the numerous re -icing stations that are 
now available, any of them will give satisfactory service, if 
properly loaded and handled. 

"The main points to consider in selecting a refrigerator car 
for transporting produce are first, its ice capacity, and second, 
its insulation. The ice tanks should hold at least five tons of 
ice, and six tons is even better. The position of the tanks, 
whether overhead or at the ends, is a question of minor im- 
portance. The car should be tightly built, with double walls 
and roof, with the space between them filled in with some non- 
conducting material, or by numerous linings of building paper, 
with dead air spaces between them. The doors should be built 
like the walls, and be of the same thickness; and they should 
fit as nearly air-tight as possible. Of course the car should be 
sweet and clean. 

"It is usual for the refrigerator companies to furnish their 
own men for loading the ears, for proper loading is a point of 
so much importance that they do not care to trust the repu- 
tation of their cars to inexperienced men. The important points 
to secure in loading are first, that the packages be so spaced 
that the cold air has immediate access to all sides of them, and 
second, that they be so secured that the load cannot shift by 
the bumping of the cars while in transit. These points are 
usually secured by piling the crates or other packages one 
above another in tiers or ranks, from three to six inches 
apart, and with lath or strips between each layer. Strips are 
placed upright against the end of the car, and a row of 
packages is placed on the floor, with the ends set snugly 
against these strips, and carefully spaced. Light half- inch 
strips, a8 long as the width of the car, are placed across 
the ends of the packages; and the front one is nailed down 
with a light nail to the head of each package, to prevent 
side shifting. Another row of packages is placed on these 
strips, each one directly above one in the lower row. These 
ar« again stripped and nailed, and so on to the top. Th^ 



Associations and Pools. 471 

next course is placed with the ends snugly against the ends 
of the first course, so that the air spaces are continuous. 
When the center of the car is reached, begin in the other 
end and load in the same way. A space will usually be 
left at the last, too narrow to admit another course of pack- 
ages; and the car must now be braced, to prevent the 
courses from shifting endwise. Pieces of one by six inch 
boards are set up against the ends of each rank of packages, 
and other strips are nailed across these uprights, near the 
bottom and the top of the car. The distance between these 
opposite cross-pieces is now carefully measured, and pieces 
of board are cut for braces about an inch longer than this 
space, so that they will have to be driven home with con- 
siderable force. The braces are toe-nailed in place, to pre- 
vent their falling, if they should chance to loosen in the 
bumping of the car. When thus loaded and braced, the con- 
tents are absolutely immovable, yet each package is separated 
from its neighbors on all sides by a layer of cold air, which, 
when it becomes warmed by the hot fruit, rises, and is car- 
ried by the currents thus generated to the ice, where it is 
quickly cooled again, and where it deposits the moisture that 
may have been taken up from the fruit. This rapid circu- 
lation of the air is very important, and the ice, instead of 
making the fruit damp, as might at first be thought, really 
serves to dry it very effectually." 

SMppiny associations. — In many parts of the 
country, the grower, if he is a good business man, 
can find a special market for all that he can raise ; 
but, in general, it is no doubt true that a thoroughly 
competent organization of fruit men is the best 
means through which to distribute fruit. Such an 
organization should make it a particular business to 
determine just where the best markets are, and to 
make out lists of those towns which are within 
practicable reach of the fruit region, with the popu- 



472 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

lation and the consuming capacity of each, the 
transportation rates thereto, and all incidental mat- 
ters which are likely to influence the market from 
day to day. Having such information before it, the 
association, if it has the shipping of the larger part 
of the fruit of any region, can place such quantity 
in each city or town as can be consumed, and 
thereby prevent the glutting of the markets. All 
this can be done only when the system of organi- 
zation is exceedingly thorough and when the growers 
are willing to cooperate; but it would likely be a 
mistake for any organization to expect to enlist in 
such an enterprise those fruit-growers who are able 
to find special and personal markets for themselves, 
as indicated in the next paragraph. Such growers 
are ordinarily so few, however, that they do not 
influence the general market conditions. 

Much has been said during the past few years 
about the shipping of fruit in pools or unions. 
When the market is very far removed from the 
producer, so that transportation rates are high, 
an organization of interests is often necessary. In 
districts which are so far from markets as the 
Pacific coast, it is necessary that a man have either 
a large quantity of fruit to ship or that he ship 
in conjunction with his neighbors; or, that he sell 
his fruit outright to buyers. In districts which are 
close to market, it is rarely advantageous to the 
growers of the very finest fruits to ship through 
pools or unions. The difficulty is that the best fruit 
is sold for about the same price that the poor fruit 



Shipping in Pools. 473 

is, and it is very rare that all the growers of any 
locality pack their fruit in the same degree of ex- 
cellence. If the union were to exercise very strin- 
gent oversight over the packing, this difficult}^ might 
be overcome. If, for example, the fruit were brought 
to the union in the trays or crates directly from 
the field, and were then re -packed uniformly before 
shipment, and each grower paid for the exact amount 
of good fruit which he delivers, the union might 
prove to be very advantageous, because there should 
be an economy in the purchase of baskets, in the 
cost of packing, in transportation rates, and also in 
the finding of the best markets. The unsatisfactory 
results which have arisen from fruit unions have 
not come from inherent difficulties in the system 
so much as from the lack of a thorough business 
system of oversight to the packing and grading of 
all the different samples which are submitted. 

The number of persons who can and will grow 
a dessert quality of fruit is very few, and such 
persons can really not afford to pool their interests 
with the common riin of fruit-growers. These per- 
sons are the ones who find special markets here 
and there, and they should use special and personal 
means of disposing of their produce. The more 
cities there are within a given distance, and the 
greater the number of transportation lines, the 
greater are the chances that a man will be able to 
find a personal and special market for his produce. 

An illustration of a fruit fnarket. — A knowledge 
of the destination of fruit after it reaches a 



474 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

metropolis should aid growers and shippers in com- 
prehending the needs of the market. The following 
is a graphic description of fruit -selling in Chicago:* 

"The distribution of the supplies furnished by 
the fruit-grower, whether direct or through the 
agency of others, has gradually become a complex 
and complete system. Perhaps I ought not to use 
the term 'complex,' as each step is well defined 
and, after all, simple, but I think but few fruit- 
growers have any idea of how complete it is, and 
to what distances fruit is exported, — the only limit 
being the cost and ability of the consumer to pay 
prices commensurate with the expenses and risks. 

"Practically all receipts are taken from the depots 
or docks to the various places of business as early 
as practicable after the arrival of the train or 
steamer. To make the matter clearer, let us illus- 
trate by using letters in place of names. A, a 
shipper, consigns to B, his correspondent, a ship- 
ment of fruit. On arrival, B has his spring wagons 
in waiting, and takes it to his place of business on 
South Water street. There, with other lots of fruit 
of different grades, qualities and conditions, it is 
examined and offered for sale. The largest, finest, 
and every -waj'- select lots are taken by the retail 
grocers whose patronage is among the 'upper ten,' 
to whom money is no object, apparently. The grade 
must be of the very best, quality superior and con- 
dition perfect. Less than 5 per cent of the total 



*Mr. Barnett, of Barnett Bros., before Mich. Hort. Soc, Dec, 1896, as re- 
ported in the Horticnltnral Gazette, Allegan. Mich., for Dec. 19, 1896. 



The Chicago Market. 475 

receipts meets the conditions exacted, so that the 
amount that can be disposed of to this class of 
buyers is limited, and their requirements are also 
about in the same proportion 

"The nexr t>Tade is of really good quality and 
good condition, so that it can be handled with a 
]-easonable degree of safety, and good for, say, 
twenty -four hours' transit to other points, or to be 
handled safely by the average retail grocer who 
supplies the well-to-do classes. The competition for 
this class of fruit is the greatest, and often a sale 
turns on the condition only, the shipper often turn- 
ing from a good line of fruit and accepting some- 
thing not so desirable in quality, to secure that 
which will reach his customers in good condition. 
It is very much better to have a medium grade of 
quality in good condition than a fancy line of fruit 
as to flavor, size, etc., worthless on account of de- 
cay. That fruit which lacks the carrying qualities 
desired by the shipper is just right for the retail 
dealer, and, as a rule, will class good to choice. 

"There are then left the inferior grades, both as 
to quality and condition. For these, buyers are 
found among the grocery keepers in the poorer sec- 
tions of the city, — among the foreign populations. 
They are good judges of fruit, and buy to meet the 
wants of their customers. With them, also, there 
are the peddlers, a numerous class and an influen- 
tial one, whose trade is necessary in handling large 
receipts. These latter also use the refuse, the ^off 
condition ' of all gi-ades, and the poon^st qualities 



476 The Principles of Fruit-growing. 

that arrive, or that become in poor condition after 
arrival, as well as a respectable portion of the better 
grades, for they sometimes carry a very good quality. 

" Let us trace these different classes a little 
further, bearing in mind carefully that there is no 
arbitrary grading, the perishable qualities of fruit at 
times making the 'fancy' of 5 A. M. the ' peddler' s- 
stock' at 5 P. M. Let us suppose C is a retail 
dealer having the best patronage. He selects what 
he needs (carefully paying no more than he can 
help — which remark also applies to all), has it set 
aside, and sends his wagon for it as soon as he has 
completed his purchases. Arriving at his store, the 
fruit is temptingly displayed to catch the eye, and 
from his stock he fills his orders, taken often with- 
out the price being named in advance, qualit}' being 
the chief requirement, sends to his customer, and 
charges it up to his account. The transaction is 
completed — all but collecting the bill. Many pay; 
many do not, and during the last thirty years, of 
all I have known, in the strictlj' fancy trade, less 
than a dozen have earned a competence. But little 
net profit remains with them. 

"The retail dealer, D, who supplies the middle 
classes, with a fair proportion of the well-to-do, 
loads his purchase into his wagon, and at once goes 
home to be ready for dinner, placing a moderate 
advance on his purchase price as his selling figure. 
He sells for cash if he can, or to his 'book' cus- 
tomers at practically the same figure. He delivers 
to his customer's home, if desired, but the bulk of 



Description of a Market. 477 

it is taken at the time of purchase, and he clears 
out his stock as closely as possible. The advance 
charged by the retailer for his labor of selecting, 
selling, delivering, and collecting his accounts may 
be roughly estimated at 2 cents per box on small 
fruits, and 2 cents per basket on peaches and 5 cents 
per peck on apples. This must itover the loss by 
decay, sampling, etc., inevitable to the retail trade. 
At times, when fruit is scarce, the profit charged 
will be larger, and when abundant, less. Sometimes 
a 'run' is made, and a single dealer will buy one 
hundred to three hundred baskets and sell at cost, 
but I consider this as advertising. 

''E, the peddler or huckster, buys everything left. 
It may be 'fancy,' or 'good,' 'out of condition,' 
'scrubs,' 'trash' — anything is grist for his mill. 
With equipments, worth ten dollars for horse, wagon, 
and harness of the Greek beginner, up through the 
various grades to the splendid two -horse team and 
$200 wagon (carrying supplies of all kinds and 
manned by three active, enterprising men) of the suc- 
cessful huckster, the 2,500 members of that great di- 
vision of distributors are powerful factors. Taking 
their purchases into their wagons, they at once start 
for their routes and cry their wares. There can be 
no fixed margin. They get what they can, take a 
margin, or sell at cost ; live on the refuse, and prob- 
ably have only a dollar per day on which to sup- 
port a familj'. While their transactions on the whole 
are enormous, their profits are very small, and with 
long hours, penetrating every street and lane of the 



478 The Principles of Fr tilt -(/rowing. 

city, they earn what they get. There is not a lane, 
street, nor avenue of the city where their voice is 
not heard, not a block but is visited by their ram- 
shackled old wagon, their apology for a horse with 
his harness or straps and strings. Not a house is 
passed unnoticed ; they are everywhere, and sell the 
fruit at a margin so close that, as I have said, their 
profits are exceedingly small. I honor them, for 
they are engaged in an honest calling ; I respect 
them, for they bring to the very poor, in the poor- 
est sections of the city, a taste, at least, of the 
richest and best offering of the country to the city, 
and we use them freely in our business and treat 
them, rough, uncouth, ragged and ignorant though 
they may be, as men. 

"There remains F, the shipper, whose aid is val- 
uable in the disposition of the receipts from day to 
day. His selections have been made on the basis of 
his orders in hand or in prospect. He has carefully 
studied the country that can be reached from this 
city, and by a course of correspondence or personal 
interview has built up a clientage that orders from 
him in such quantities as may be sold profitably. 
The entire northwest has been carefully studied, and 
from central Illinois to middle Missouri, western 
Iowa, central Minnesota, and all of Wisconsin, orders 
have been solicited and some have been received. 
Weekly quotations are sent, some houses sending two 
thousand to three thousand at a single issue. These 
reach every city, town, village, or hamlet within 
reasonable rail communication, and everything else 18 



J 



Description of Fruit -selling. 479 

out of the (|uestion. He studies the needs of each 
customer, and having secured the amount needed to 
fill his orders, at once commences to send by ex- 
press, and to many points where through freights 
run the fruit goes largely in that manner. It is 
safe to say that there is no spot within two hundred 
miles of Chicago that, with fair means of connection 
with this market, can not have a full supply of fruit. 
"Now, as to the expense or cost of these ship- 
ments. The broker, dealer or shipper is well satis- 
fied if he can realize 10 per cent on his purchases. 
Let the shipper of fruit to this market consider what 
it means. . There is the careful selection of fruit, the 
marking, billing, practically guaranteeing of safe de- 
livery, chances of failure of his far-off customer — 
and collecting his bill at the end of two weeks to 
three months. Applying the test to the fruit broker 
or shipper, but few get much more than a living out 
of the business. The express and freight companies 
charge only a fair compensation for the service per- 
formed. Although fruit msiy come high in central 
Minnesota or northern Wisconsin, the dwellers in 
those regions can not reasonably expect to have fruit 
brought to them without labor and expense." 



APPENDIX. 

/. HOW DID THE VARIETIES OF FRUITS 
ORIGINATE? 

There is universal curiosity to know how the various kinds ol 
fruits have originated. It seems to be next to impossible to en- 
lignten the public mind upon the question, for whatever detailed ex- 
planation one may give seems to leave the questioner unsatisfied. 
The real cause of this dissatisfaction is the fact that people assume 
that there is something mysterious about the process of the origi- 
nation of varieties; and so long as the mind makes a mystery of 
a subject it is impossible to elucidate it. We have also been 
taught that like normally produces like, and therefore that any 
unlikeness between two plants — as between the parent and its off- 
spring—calls for instant explanation. The fact is, that it is not 
the nature of domestic productions for like to produce like, but 
rather for similar to produce similar. That is, there are certain 
type or family characteristics which pass over to the offspring, but 
there is normally almost endless unlikenesses in the details. Apples 
give rise to apples, and sometimes there is a closer reproduction 
of the parents in tribes like the Fameuse apples and the Crawford 
peaches; but there is seldom or never an exact duplication of pa- 
rental features. Considering that this is the normal law of nature, 
it follows that the wonder is that plants should ever reproduce the 
variety with approximate exactness. In other words, rigidity of 
generation may be the thing to be explained rather than the elas- 
ticity of it. In kitchen-garden vegetables this rigidity has come about, 
but it is the direct result of a long effort at selection and breed- 
ing until the elasticity of the type has been largely bred out.* 

*A fuller explanation of this class of facts will be found on pages 88, 
89 and 90 of "Plant-Breeding;" and the reader is referred to that work 
and to "The Survival of the Unlike" for discussions of the philosophy of 
plant-breeding and of the running out of varieties. 

PF (481) 



482 Appendix. 

Those persons who are always wondering how the varieties of 
fruits have come should consult the records. History is capa- 
ble of enlightening them. If the origins of varieties are traced 
it will be found that in the vast majority of cases the variety 
was simply discovered, and that some one began to propagate it 
because he thought it to be good. A tree springs up along a 
roadside, in the fence-row, back of the barn, in a thicket, and bears 
acceptable fruit. It is the product of a chance seed dropped by a 
bird or thrown there by an urchin. A thousand, perhaps ten thou- 
sand, seeds produce trees which bear poor or indiiferent products 
where only one bears superior fruit. This one good tree is cherished, 
and all the others are forgotten, or perhaps are never seen ; and 
then we wonder why so many more good varieties originate in the 
half-wild places than in the garden. It is only because more seeds 
have been sown there ; and as we do not covet the ground, the 
failures pass unnoticed. If we should secure the same results 
in the garden by the sowing of only half the number of seeds, 
we should consider the experiment to be a costly one. It is 
probable that a seed will produce the same character of fruit, whether 
the tree springs up in a fence-row or in the garden ; and the half- 
wild areas are, therefore, most useful and prolific places in which 
to allow nature to carry out her various whims in plant-breeding. 
And if man has been willing to be relieved of all effort in the 
matter, it is fair to assume that he will long continue of the same 
mind, and that this exploration for new varieties will be a passion 
of the adventurer until every copse and tangle has been razed into 
cultivated fields. 

There has been, to be sure, an occasional direct attempt to pro- 
duce new varieties, but there has been very little definite plant- 
breeding of the type which sets an ideal before the mind and then 
tries to attain to it. It is not germane to the present book to dis- 
cuss the fundamental reasons why plants vary and new forms arise. 
These reasons are obscure at best, but the greater part of them 
are probably not past finding out. It is enough for this occasion 
to say that nearly all the varieties of fruits wei-e seedlings found 
in some waste place, or in a nursery row or a garden; and they 
were propagated. 



Appendix. 483 

//. REMARKS ON CLASSIFYING AND DESCRIBING 
FRUITS. 

We name the varieties of fruits in order that we may speak and 
write about them. Since the name is a definite thing, it is commonly 
assumed that the variety is also a definite thing. It is a fact, however, 
that varieties are not definite or definable. This follows from two facts, 
—that there is no original or necessary standard or measure of what 
shall constitute a variety, and that the variety may vary or change 
through the influence of climate or other agencies. There are, there- 
fore, varieties representing all degrees of differences, some being so 
unlike all others as to be universally accepted as distinct, and some so 
like others as to cause dispute as to whether they are really varieties or 
not. Again, we must not assume, because one name has been retained 
for a certain stock, that the stock, therefore, remains the same. For 
example, the fact that we still use the name Catawba does not prove 
that the Catawba grape is the same now as it was when first named 
and disseminated ; the King is not the same apple in Oregon and New 
York, although the name is the same in both states, and all the trees 
have been propagated from one original. 

These remarks are made for the purpose of pointing out the facts 
that the classifying and describing of varieties involve two classes 
of problems, — the questions connected with the making of the names 
and the systems (as the form of the name, rules of priority, schemes 
of classification), and those associated with the natural history of 
varieties (as to whether given varieties are distinct, the valu-e of 
geographical names and synonyms, and the like). The practical ap- 
plication of these remarks is, that we are not to expect uniform 
exactness, either in the classifying of varieties or in the describ- 
ing of them. We can deal only with types, expecting that numerous 
exceptions will be found to the most painstaking description, and to 
the most carefully made key. Varieties are not entities or things, 
as machines are, a fact which, though usually not recognized, has 
been the reason for the failure of the many attempts to protect the 
originator of varieties by means of patent rights. 

The first step In making a sketch of a variety is to distinguish 
clearly between a description and a characterization. A description 
gives a full account of all the attributes; a characterization gives 
only those attributes which are unique to the variety. For example, 
ten kinds of cherries may be large, red and heart-shaped; in descrip- 
tions, these three attributes are repeated for each variety; but in 



484 Appendix. 

characterizations, these attributes are omitted (having previously been 
given in a general sentence), and only those features are mentioned 
which distinguish any variety from the other nine. It follows that 
when varieties are arranged alphabetically, only descriptions are of 
value; but when they are arranged in some system of classification, 
only characterizations are admissible. Descriptions are easy to make: 
one writes down what he sees. Characterizations are difiicult to 
draw: one must make comparisons of many specimens, and he must 
clearly perceive an ideal type. 

In making either descriptions or characterizations, the student 
should consider the entire plant as well as the fruit itself. The habit 
of growth, the bark and foliage, the flowers, often have characteristic 
features in different varieties. Yet, since the fruit is the main con- 
sideration, and since the enquirer can seldom have flowers and fruit.s 
at the same time, and often has not even access to the plant, it must 
follow that characters drawn from the fruit itself must form the 
foundation of the characterization; and these should usually precede 
other characters in the paragraph. Similarly, a system of classifica- 
tion of the varieties of any fruit which gives great emphasis to char- 
acters not drawn from the fruit itself, is fundamentally weak. It is 
to be expected, therefore, for example, that the effort to classify 
varieties of apples and pears by characters of the stamens and styles 
will never come into popular use; but these characters are no doubt 
of great value if they can be used as secondary features of descrip- 
tions or characterizations. For studies of the characters of stamens 
and styles in pomaceous fruits, see Deal's various writings. (Rep. 
Mich. Pom. Soc. 1876, 17. Am. Pom. Soc. 1877; 1879, 27; 1881, 73.) 
Of ideals of classification founded on the characters of the fruit, one 
of the best discussions is to be found in Hogg's "Fruit Manual" 
(English). The student should also consult Warder on "The Apple," 
and Thomas' "American Fruit Culturist." 

Since each fruit demands a separate and usually distinct mode of 
classification and characterization, the details of the subjects cannot 
be considered here; but the following extracts will show what consti- 
tutes a complete and good description in the mind of one careful stu- 
dent (Deal, Proc. 12th and 13th Ann. Meetings Soc. Prom. Agric. Sci., 
1892, pp. 25, 28): 

^^ Crescent Strawberry. — Plant rather large, not robust, soft pubes- 
cent, of a light green color, very hardy and vigorous and exceedingly 
productive; runners rather slender, bracts a little above the middle; 
leaflets slightly involute-conduplicate, oval, coarsely serrate or rarely 



Appendix 485 

doubly serrate; peduncle rather stout, raising the panicle nearly as 
high as the leaves; panicle 2-4 inches long, 12-24-flowered (usually 
about lo-flowered); lower bracts broad, oval; sepals lanceolate or 
ovate-lanceolate, the alternating bractlets about the same length; 
petals orbicular, or oval, 4-16 to 5-16 inches long, including a short 
claw; stamens numerous and well developed; fruit bright crimson, 
broad ovoid to round oblong, 'A inch long; moderately firm; quality, 
medium; season medium. 

"Origin, Connecticut, 1870. 

"Probably not excelled by any variety for its productiveness on all 
sorts of soils and with every kind of treatment. Extensively grown." 

'^Cuthbert JRaspberry. — Plant tall, stout, slightly glaucous, prickles 
recurved, few, weak, seldom more than one mm. long; leaves, some- 
what wrinkled, light green above, light green to glaucous green 
below, under a lens more or less tomentose; leaflets large, doubly 
serrate-dentate, often recurved, those on stout shoots mostly five, 
sessile, puckered at the base, those of bearing branches three, stipules 
45 mm. long, erect, terete, 7-10 of the upper leaves bearing 1-4 
flowers, light red on the upper side, pedicles 1.5-2.5 cm. long (the 
whole panicle 20-30 cm. long), smooth or with minute prickles, 
bractlets 1-2 mm. long; calyx destitute of prickles, petals narrowly 
oval or obovate, 4-5 mm. long, including the very short claw; pistils 
clothed with minute reddish pubescence; fruit ovoid-conic, 6-8 mm. 
long; base of cah'^x 3-5 mm. long; styles, when dead, brown, bent, 
2.5 mm. long; torus conical, 8 mm. long, fruit red, very large and 
firm, productive and vigorous, quality good, rather hardy, season 
medium. 

"Origin, New Jersey or New York, 1870." 

A glossary of some of the leading terms used in describing fruits 
may be useful to the novice. Of general tei'ms, the following may be 
mentioned: Phytog raphy , the describing of plants; taxonomy, the 
science or practice of classification: terminology, the knowledge of the 
terms or technical words used in any subject; nomenclature, the 
knowledge of the names used to designate any class of objects. 

Leading terms used to designate the shape of fruits are as fol- 
lows: Conical, length equal to or greater than the breadth and the 
upper shoulders narrowed (Fig. 115) ; ovate, broader than the conical 
(Fig. 116);- obovate, inversely ovate (larger at the apex); oblong, 
length equal to or greater than the breadth, and sides parallel or very 
nearly so; oblate, distinctly flattened endwise (Fig. 117); lop-sided 
(Fig. 118). Combinations of these terms with themselves (Fig. 119)^ 




Fig. 115. Conical. 




Fig. 119. Oblong-conical. 




Fig. 118. Lop-sidea. 



Fig. 120. Various types. 



Appendix. 487 

and with such common adjectives as spherical, round, short, flat, 
enable one to designate the form of the more irregular fruits. 

The ends or extremities of fruits are described by technical terms. 
In pome-like fruits, the depression in the apex (or blossom end) is 
known as the hasin (d, e, Fig. 120). The depression at the base (or 
stem end) is the cavity (a, b, c, Fig. 120). The basin is broad and 
deep in e, and small and shallow in d; and it is corrugated or fur- 
rowed in Fig. 117. The cavity is narrow and deep in a, broad and 
deep in c, and narrow and shallow in &. In the basin sits the calyx 
or eye. This calyx is open in e, and closed in d. The stalk or stem 
is short in a, very short in b, and long and slender in c. In stone- 
fruits, the depressions at apex and base are less marked, and the 
term basin is not used; but cavity is used for the depression about 
the stem. The longitudinal furrow or depression on the side of a 
stone-fruit (as of a peach or plum) is known as a suture. 

In describing the color of a fruit, it is customary to assume an 
under-color or ground-color, which is laid on nearly or quite uni- 
formly over the entire surface, and over which the markings are dis 
played. This ground-color is therefore the prevailing tone of yellow 
or green, or other subdued color, which shows between the spots and 
streaks, underneath the solid red or purple, and on the uncolored 
side of the fruit. A fruit is striped when it is marked by broad and 
more or less definite longitudinal bands; streaked when the markings 
are very narrow, as in Fig. 115; splashed when the stripes are broken 
and irregular; mottled when marked by large confluent dots. 

The quality of a fruit is determined by its texture and its flavor. 
The texture is said to be hard, coarse, gritty, rough, fine-grained, 
buttery, melting. The flavor is described as poor, good, very good 
(largely matters of individual taste), sweet, acid or sour, subacid or 
sourish (that is, only slightly sour), dry, juicy, vinous (with a lively 
wine-like suggestion), aromatic, and the like. 

The names of varieties should be short and modest; and a name 
which has once been used should not be used again in the same class 
of fruit, even though the variety to which it was first applied should 
have become extinct. All titles, as General, Professor, President, and 
all extravagant adjectives, as superb, magnificent, grand, should be 
omitted from the name of the variety. The standard practice in this 
country is that specified in the rules adopted by the American Pomo- 
logical Society. Helpful suggestions may also be found in the rules 
adopted by a committee of horticulturists for the naming of vege- 
tables, and published in "Annals of Horticulture for 1889." 



488 Appendix. 



III. AMERICAN BOOKS ON FRUIT- GEO WING. 

The subjoined bibliography comprises all the American books in 
the author's library which are devoted to the general discussion of 
fruit-growing. It omits all works upon particular pomological topics, 
as small-fruits, grapes, oranges, and the like. Inventories of these 
special books belong properly in the works which shall be devoted 
to the various classes of fruits. 

BAILEY, L. H. 

Garden-Making. Suggestions for the utilizing of home grounds. 
Aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh, Ernest Walker. New York 
and London. 1898. [c. 1898.*] The Macmillan Company, pp. vii 
4-417. 7x5t. [The Garden-Craft Series.] 

— Same. Reprinted 1898. pp. vii-)- 417. 

— Same, 3rd ed., revised, pp. vii -f- 417. 

BAILEY, L. H. 

The Nursery-Book ; a complete guide to the multiplication and 

pollination of plants. Illustrated. New York. 1891. [c. 1891.] 

The Rural Publishing Company, pp. 304. 7Kx5>^. 
-Same, 3rd ed. New York and London. 1896. fc. 1896.] The 

Macmillan Company, pp. xi4-365. 7x43^. [The Garden-Craft 

Series.] 
-Same, 4th ed. 1900. pp. xi + 365. 

BAILEY, L. H. 

The Principles of Fruit-Growing. Illustrated. New York and 
London. 1897. [c. 1897.] The Macmillan Company, pp. xi-f-508. 
7x4%. [The Rural Science Series.] 

— Same, 2nd edition. 1898. pp. xvii-|-514. 

BAILEY, L. H. 

The Pruning-Book. A monograph of the pruning and training of 
plants as applied to American conditions. Illustrated. New York 
and London. 1898. [c. 1898.] The Macmillan Company, pp. ix 
4-537. 7x5. [The Garden-Craft Series.] 
-Same, 2nd ed. 1899. pp. ix4-545. 



*Date of copyright. 

tLengtb and width of volume, in inches. 



Appendix, 489 

BAKER, CHARLES R. 

Practical and Scientific Fruit-Culture. Illustrated. Boston 
1866. [e, 1866.] Lee & Shepard. pp. .52.^. %y^^o%. 

BARRY, P. 

The Fruit Garden; a treatise intended to explain and illustrate 
the physiology of fruit trees, the theory and practice of all 
operations connected with the propagation, transplanting, prun- 
ing and training of orchard and garden trees, as standards, 
dwarfs, pyramids, espaliers, etc., the laying out and arranging 
different kinds of orchards and gardens, the selection of suit- 
able varieties for different purposes and localities, gathering and 
preserving fruits, treatment of diseases, destruction of insects, 
descriptions and uses of implements, etc. Illustrated with up- 
wards of 150 figures, representing different parts of trees, all 
practical operations, forms of trees, designs for plantations, im- 
plements, etc. New York. 1860. [c. 1851.] C. M. Saxton. 
Barker & Co. pp. xiv-f398. 7>^x5. 
-Same. New edition. Revised and brought down to date, by the 
author. Illustrated. New York. 1888. [c. 1883.] Orange Judd 
Company, pp. xvi-f-516. 7%x5. 

BEADLE, D. W. 

Canadian Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Gardener ; a guide in 
all matters relating to the cultivation of fruits, flowers and 
A'^egetables, and their value for cultivation in this climate. Il- 
lustrated. Colored plates. Toronto. 1872. [c. 1872.] James 
Campbell & Son. pp. xvi-(-391. 9x6. 

BEECHER, HENRY WARD. 

Plain and Pleasant Talk about Fruits, Flowers and Farming. 

New York. 1859. [c. 1859]. Derby & Jackson. A. O. Moore & 

Co. pp. viii-f-420. 7K + 5. 
— Same, new edition, with additional matter from recent writings, 

published and unpublished. New York. 1874. [c. 1873.] J. B. 

Ford & Co. pp. vii ^- 498. 1% x 5. 

BREHAUT. REV. T. COLLINGS. 

Cordon Training of Fruit Trees ; diagonal, vertical, spiral, hori- 
zontal, adapted to the orchard-house and open-air culture. With 
a supplement containing remarks on cordon training, the culti- 
yation and pruning of peach trees in pots, the best varieties of 



490 Appendix. 

fruits for pot-culture ; and general remarks on orchard-houses 
adapted to the climate of the United States. By C. M. Hovey. 
Illustrated. Boston. 1864. [ n. c] Hovey & Co. pp. 112. 
9x5^. [The supplement, pp. 79-112, is by Hovey.] 

BRIDGEMAN, THOMAS. 

The Fruit-Cultivator's Manual ; containing ample directions for 
the cultivation of the most important fruits, including the cran- 
berry, the fig, and grape, with descriptive lists of the most 
admired varieties. And a calendar, showing the work necessary 
to be done in the orchard and fruit-garden every month of the 
year. The whole adapted to the climate of the United States. 
Portrait. New York. 1845. [c. 1844.] A. Hanford. pp. vi-|- 
175. 7^x4K. 
-Same. New York. 1847. [c. 1847.] pp. vi-f 189. 73^x43^. 

BRINCKLE, WILLIAM D., Editor. 

Hoffy's North American Pomologist; containing numerous flnelv 
colored drawings, accompanied by letter press descriptions, etc., 
of fruits of American origin. Portrait. Book No. I. Philadel- 
phia. 1860. [c. 1860.] Prepared and published by A. Hoffy. 
pp. vi4-44. 10% X 8. 

COLE, S. W. 

The American Fruit-Book; containing directions for raising, 
propagating, and managing fruit-trees, shrubs, and plants; with 
a description of the best varieties of fruit, including new and 
valuable kinds; embellished and illustrated with numerous en- 
gravings of fruits, trees, insects, grafting, budding, training, etc., 
etc. Eighteenth thousand. Boston. 1850. [n. c] John P. Jewett 
& Co.; New York. C. M. Saxton. pp. 288. 6x4. 

COLLINGWOOD, H. W. 

Fertilizers and Fruit. A trip among growers in the famous 
Hudson River fruit district. Best quality in fruit. New York. 
1893. [c. 1893.] The Rural Publishing Co. pp. 27. 73^x5. [The 
Rural Library, Vol. I., No. 25, Dec] 

COXE, WILLIAM. 

A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Man- 
agement OF Orchards and Cider; with accurate descriptions 
of the most estimable varieties of native and foreign apples. 



Appendix. 491 

pears, peaches, plums, and cherries, cultivated in the Middle 
States of America; illustrated by cuts of two hundred kinds 
of fruits of the natural size; intended to explain some of the 
errors which exist relative to the origin, popular names, and 
character of many of our fruits; to identify them by accurate 
descriptions of their properties, and correct delineations of the 
full size and natural formation of each variety; and to ex- 
hibit a system of practice adapted to our climate, in the suc- 
cessive stages of a nursery, orchard, and cider establish- 
ment. Philadelphia. 1817. [c. 1817.] Published by M. Carey 
& Son. D. Allinson, printer, pp. iv-f-268. 8%x53^. 

CREIGHTON, W. O. 

Fruit-Growing for Profit; comprising a complete history of 
apple culture, from the time the seeds are planted until the 
proceeds ai-e pocketed. With chapters on the plum, pear, cherry, 
strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, currant and gooseberry. Hali- 
fax, N. S. 1891. [n. c] Nova Scotia Printing Co. pp. 52. 
83^x5^. 

DOWNING, A. J. 

The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America; or the culture, propa- 
gation, and management, in the garden and orchard, of fruit 
trees generally; with descriptions of all the finest varieties of 
fruit, native and foreign, cultivated in this country. Illustrated 
with many engravings. New York and London. 1845. [c. 1845.] 
Wiley & Putnam, pp. xiv -|- 594. 8x5. 

-Same (6th ed.), 1846. [c. 1845.] pp. xiv-j-594. 8x5. 

-Same (7th ed.), 1847. [c. 1845.] pp. xiv -[-594. 8x5. 

— Same [with wide margin and colored plates]. 1847. [c. 1845.] 
pp. xiv 4-594. 10x634. 

-Same (9th ed.) 1849. [c. 1845.] John Wiley, pp. xiv -f 594. 
8x5. 

— Same, revised and corrected by Charles Downing. 1860. [c. 1857]. 
John Wiley, pp. xiii + 760. 8x5. 

-Same, 1864. [c. 1857.] pp. xix 4-760. 8x5. 

— Same, second revision and correction, with large additions, in- 
cluding the appendices of 1872 to 1881, and containing many 
new varieties, by Charles Downing, with nearly 400 outline illus- 
trations of fruit. 1890. [c. 1872.] John Wiley & Sons. pp. 
xxiv-|-l,098 4-ix-f-189. 93^x6. 

-Same, appendices I., II., III. 1881. [c. 1881.] pp. xii-|-189, 
9x5^. 



492 Appendix. 

DOWNING, CHARLES. 

Selected Fruits; from Downing's Fruits and Fruit-Trees of Amer- 
ica. With some new varieties; including their culture, propaga- 
tion, and management in the garden and orchard. Illustrated with 
upwards of four hundred outlines of apples, cherries, grapes, 
plums, pears, etc. New York. 1871. [c. 1871.] John Wiley & 
Son. pp. x4-679. 8x5>^. 

— Same, fifth edition. 1845. [c. 1845.] pp. xiv-}- 594. 8x5. 
ELLIOTT, F. R. 

Fruit Book ; or, the American fruit-grower's guide in orchard 
and garden. Being a compend of the history, modes of propa- 
gation, culture, etc., of fruit trees and shrubs, with descriptions 
of nearly all the varieties of fruits cultivated in this country; 
notes of their adaptation to localities and soils, and also a com- 
plete list of fruits worthy of cultivation. Illustrated. New York. 
1854. [c. 1854]. C. M. Saxton. pp. ix+503. 8x5. 

— Same, The Western Fruit-Book; new edition, revised, en- 
larged and improved. New York. n. d. [c. 18.59.] Orange 
Judd Co. pp. xi-l-528. 73^x5. 

ELLIOTT, F. R. 

Hand-Book for Fruit-Growers; containing a short history of 
fruits and their value, instructions as to soils and locations, how 
to grow from seeds, how to bud and graft, the making of cut- 
tings, pruning, best age for transplanting, etc., etc. With a list 
of varieties suited to climate. Illustrated. Made for those who 
grow fruit for their own use. New edition, enlarged. Rochester, 
[c. 1876. ] Rochester Lithographing Co. No date. pp. 144. 
7x534. 

ELLIOTT, WILLIAM R. 

Practical and Comprehensive Treatise on Fruit and Floral 
Culture, and a few hints on landscape gardening. Illustrated, 
n. d. [Philadelphia advertisements interspersed.] pp. 100. 
7x4K. 

EMMONS, EBENEZER. 

Agriculture of New York; comprising an account of the classifi- 
cation, composition and distribution of the soils and rocks, and the 
natural waters of the different geological formations; together with 
a condensed view of the climate and the agricultural productions of 
the state. Many colored plates. Vol. Ill [comprising an account 
of the fruits]. Albany. 1851. pp. viii-f 340. 11x9. [In Natural 
History of New York.] 



Appendix. 498 

PORSYTH, WILLIAM. 

An Epitome of Mr. Forsyth's Treatise on the Culture and 
Management of Fruit Trees. Also, notes on American garden- 
ing and fruits; with designs for promoting the ripening of fruits 
and securing them as family comforts; and further, of economi- 
cal principles in building farmers' habitations. By an American 
farmer. Philadelphia. 1803. [n. c] Prin^^ed by T. L. Plowman 
for John Morgan, pp. 186-f-r). S%x5H. 

FORSYTH, WILLIAM. 

A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees; 
in which a new method of pruning and training is fully de- 
scribed. Together with observations on the diseases, defects, 
and injuries in all kinds of fruit and forest trees; as also, an 
account of a particular method of cure, made public by order 
of the British govei-nment. To which are added an introduction 
and notes, adapting the rules of the treatise to the climate and 
seasons of the United States of America. By William Cobbett. 
Plate. New York. 1802. [n. c] Ezra Sargeant & Co. pp. 
viii-(-259. 8J4x5}i. 
-Same. Albany. 1803. [n. c] D. & S. Whiting, pp. xii4-280. 
8%x5M. Contains at the close a commendatory letter from 
Peter W. Yates, of Albany. 

FULLER, ANDREW S. 

The Propagation of Plants; giving the principles which gov- 
ern the development and growth of plants, their botanical affini- 
ties and peculiar properties; also, descriptions of the process 
by which varieties and species are crossed or hybridized, and 
the many different methods by which cultivated plants may be 
propagated and multiplied. Illustrated with numerous engrav- 
ings. New York. 1887. [c. 1887.] Orange Jurld Co., David W. 
Judd, president, pp. x I .349. 73^ x .5. 

(iOODRICH, CHAUNCEY. 

The Northern Fruit Culturist; or, the farmer's guide to the 
orchard and fruit garden. Illustrated. Burlington. 1849. [c. 
1849.] Chauncey Goodrich, pp. viii-j-lOS 7Hx4}4. 
— Same, second edition, corrected and enlarged. Burlington. IS.'iO. 
fc. 1849.] Chauncey Goodrich, pp. ^•■■i-f-112. 7>^x4K. 

GREEN, CHARLES A. 

Green's Four Books, devoted to: I. How we made the old 
farm pay. 2. Peach culture. 3. How to propagate fruit-plants, 
vines and trees. 4. General fruit instructor. Illustrated 



494 Appendix, 

Rochester, N. Y. 1897. [c. 1895.] Green's Nursery Co. pp. 119. 
9x6. [New edition of 1897.] 

(^REEN, CHARLES A. 

Green's Six Books, devoted to apple culture, pear culture, plum 
and cherry culture, raspberry and blackberry culture, grape cul- 
ture, strawberry, currant, gooseberry and persimmon culture. 
Illustrated. Rochester, N. Y. 1896. [c. 1894.] Green's Nursery 
Co., N. Y. pp. 142. 9x6. [New edition of 1896.] 

GREEN, CHARLES A. 

How TO Propagate and Grow Fruit; editor of Greenes Fruit 
Grower. Two colored plates. Over lifty illustrations. Rochester, 
N. Y. n. d. [c. 1885.] pp. 80. 934x6. 

GREEN, SAMUEL B. 

Amateur Fruit Growing; a practical guide to the growing of 
fruit for home use and the market. Written with special ref- 
erence to colder climates. Blustrated, Minneapolis. 1894. 
[c. 1893.] Farm, Stock and Home Publishing Co. pp. 132. 73^x5. 

GREGG, THOMAS. 

A Hand-Book of Fruit-Culture ; being a guide to the cultivation 
and management of fruit trees; with condensed descriptions of 
many of the best and most popular varieties in the United States. 
Illustrated with ninety engravings. With an appendix containing 
a variety of useful memoranda on the subject, valuable household 
receipts, etc. N. Y. n. d. [c. J857.) Fowler & Wells, pp. 
viii-l-163. 73^x43^. 

GURNEY, C. W. 

Northwestern Pomology; a treatise on the growing and care 
of trees, fruits and flowers in the northwestern states. Concord, 
Nebraska. 1894. [c. 1894.] Pub. by Author, pp. 293. 8x5^. 

HARCOURT, HELEN. 

Florida Fruits, and How to Raise Them. Revised and en- 
larged edition, with elaborate index of subjects. Louisville, 
Ky. 1866. [c. 1866.] John P. Morton & Co. pp. .'^47. 8x534. 

HOOPER, E. J. 

Hooper's Western Fruit-Book; a compendious collection of facts, 
from the notes and experience of successful fruit culturists, 
arranged for practical use in the orchard and garden. Colored 
plates. Cincinnati. 1857. [c. 1857.] Moore, Wilstach, Keys 
& Co. pp. x + 333. 8x5. 
-Same, 3rd edition, completely revised. 1858. [c. 1857.] pp. 
x-f-355. 8x5. 



Appendix. 495 

HOVEY, C. M. 

The Fpvits of America; containing richly colced figures, and 
full descriptions of all the choicest varieties cultivated in the 
United States. Boston. Vol. I., Hovey & Co. 1852. [c. 1851.] 
pp. 100. Vol. II., Hovey & Co. 1856. [c. 1851.] pp. 96. llJ^xS. 
[In Cornell Univ. Library, Vol. II. has 24 pp. of Vol. III., but no 
title. Vol. III. was never completed.] 
HOW TO Grow Fruit, Flowers and Vegetables ; and the lan- 
guage of flowers. New York. Norman L. Munro. No date. 
Paper, pp.68. 63^x4. 

IVES, JOHN M. 

See Manning, Robert. The New England Fruit-Book. 

JAQUES, GEORGE. 

A Practical Treatise on the Management of Fruit Trees; 
with descriptive lists of the most valuable fruits for general 
cultivation; adapted to the interior of New England. Worcester. 
1849. [c. 1849.] Erastus N. Tucker, pp. 256. 6^x43^. [Bound 
as Jaques' N. E. Fruit Trees.] 

JENKINS, J. 

Art of Propagation; a hand-book for nurserymen, florists, gar- 
deners, and everybody. Illustrated. Winona, Columbia Co., Ohio. 
1886. [c. 1876.] Jenkins' Grape and Seedling Nursery, pp. .31. 
9x6. 

KENRICK, WILLIAM. 

The New American Orchardist; or, an account of the most 
valuable varieties of fruit, adapted to cultivation in the climate 
of the United States, from the latitude of 25° to 54°, with their 
uses, modes of culture, and management; remedies for the mala- 
dies to which they are subject, from noxious insects, and other 
causes, etc. Also, a brief description of the most ornamental 
forest trees, shrubs, flowers, etc. Boston. 1833. [c. 1832.] Car- 
ter, Kendel & Co., and Russell, Odiorne & Co. pp. xxxvi-|-428 
73^x4^. 

KENRICK, WILLIAM. 

The New American Orchardist; or, an account of the most 
valuable varieties of fruit, of all climates, adapted to cultiva- 
tion in the United States, with their history, modes of culture, 
management, uses, etc. And the culture of silk. With an ap- 
pendix on vegetables, ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. 
Second edition, enlarged and improved. Boston. 1835. [c. 1835.1 
Russell, Odiorne & Metcalf. pp. 418. 73^x4^. 



496 Appendix. 

KENRICK, WILLIAM. 

The New American Orchardist; or, an account of the most 
valuable varieties of fruit, of all climates, adapted to cultiva- 
tion in the Unitfed States; with their history, modes of culture, 
management, uses, etc. With an appendix on vegetables, orna- 
mental trees, shrubs and flowers, the agricultural resources of 
America, and on silk, etc. Third edition, enlarged and im- 
proved. Boston. 1841. [c. 1841.] Otis, Broaders & Co. pp. 
449. 7^x4%. 

— Same, 5th edition, enlarged and improved. 1842. [c. 1841.] pp. 
449. 7^x5. 

— Same. 6th edition, enlarged and improved. With a supplement. 

1843. [c. 1841.] pp. 450. 73^x5. 

— Same, 7th edition, enlarged and improved. With a supplement. 

1844. [c. 1841.] pp.450. 73^x5. 

— Same, 8th edition, enlarged and improved. With a supplement. 
1848. [c. 1841.] pp.450. 7J^x5. 

KITCHEN AND Fruit Gardener, The; a select manual of kitchen 
gardening, and culture of fruits, containing familiar directions 
for the most approved practice in each department, descriptions 
of many valuable fruits, and a calendar of work to be performed 
each month in the year. The whole adapted to the climate of 
the United States. Philadelphia. 1844. [c. 1844.] Lea & Blan- 
chard. pp. xii-j-118. 7%x4%. [An American edition of an 
English work. Bound with the Complete Florist.] 

KNOWLTON, O. H. 

Fruit Culture; its possibilities in Maine. A paper delivered 
before the winter meeting of the Maine State Pomological So- 
ciety, held in Bangor, Feb. 24 and 25, 1891. Farmington, Maine. 
pp.12. 6x3. [Separately printed.] 
LACY, T. JAY. 

Fruit Culture for the Gulf States, south of latitude 32°. 
Alexandria, La. 1888. [c. 1888.] Press of Town Talk. pp. 50. 
63^x4%. 

LARSEN- HENRY. 

Manual for the Pruning and Culture of All Kinds op Fruit 
Trees ; and directions for the destruction of the curculio and 
other insects. Philadelphia. 1860. [c. 1859.] James Challen & 
Son. pp. 75. 6x4. 

L.AWSON, WILLIAM. 

A New Orchard and Garden; or, the best way for planting. 



ApiM'udlx. 497 

e:ra£ting. and to make any ground good, for a rich orchard. 
J^articularly in the north, and generally for the whole king- 
dom of England, as in nature, reason, situation, and all proba- 
bilitie, may and doth appeare. With the country housewife's 
garden for herbs of common use, their vertues, seasons, profits, 
ornaments, varietie of knots, models for trees, and plots for the 
best ordering of grounds and walkes. As also the husbandry 
of bees, with their several uses and annoyances, all being the 
experiences of 48 years' labour, and now the third time cor- 
rected and much enlarged, by William Lawson. Whereunto is 
newly added the art of propagating plants, with the true or- 
dering of all manner of fruits, in their gathering, carrying home, 
and preservation. Printed at London by J. H. for Francis Wil- 
liams. 1626. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 1858. [n. c] Robert 
Pearsall Smith, pp. 39. 9Mx6. [Reprint.] 

LINDLEY, GEORGE. 

A Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden; or, an account 
of the most valuable fruits cultivated in Great Britian. With 
additions of all the most valuable fruits cultivated in America, 
with directions for their cultivation, budding, grafting and prop- 
agation, pruning and training of standard, open dwarf and 
espalier fruit trees, adapted to the climate of the United States 
of America. A new edition, with an appendix, describing many 
American fruits not mentioned in the former edition. Illustrated. 
New York. 1846. [c. 1846.] J. C. Riker. pp. xi-f-420. 7>^x4>i. 

LODEMAN, E. G. 

The Spraying of Plants; a succinct account of the application 
of liquids and powders to plants for the purpose of destroying 
insects and fungi. With a preface by B. T. Galloway. Portrait 
of A. Millardet. Illustrated. New York and London. 1896. [c. 
1896.] Macmillan & Co. pp. xvii-f399. 7x5. [The Rural Science 
Series, edited by L. H. Bailey.] 

MANNING, ROBERT. 

Book of Fruits; being a descriptive catalogue of the most val- 
uable varieties of the pear, apple, peach, plum and cherry, for 
New England culture. To which is added the gooseberry, cur- 
rant, raspberry, strawberry, and the grape; with modes of cul- 
ture. Also, hardy ornamental trees and shrubs. With plates. 
First series for 1838. Salem. 1838. [c. 1838.] Published by 
Ives & Jewett. pp. 120. 73^x454. 



498 Appendix. 

MANNING, ROBERT. 

The New England Fruit Book; being a descriptive catalogue 
of the most valuable varieties of the pear, apple, peach, plum 
and cherry, for New England culture. To which is added other 
varieties; also the grape, quince, gooseberry, currant, and straw- 
berry; with outlines of many of the finest pears, drawn from 
nature; with directions for pruning, grafting, budding, and gen- 
eral modes of culture. Second edition, enlarged by John M. 
Ives. Salem and Boston. 1844. [c. 1844.] Pub. by W. & 
S. B. Ives, Salem. B. B. Mussey, Boston, pp. 133. 7^x4^. 

MAYNARD, S. T. 

The Practical Fruit - Grower. Profusely illustrated. Spring- 
field, Mass. 1898. [c. 1885.] The Phelps Publishing Company, 
pp. 128. 7^x5. 

McNEIL, J. W 

Fruits and Vegetables, Hazlehurst, Miss. 1888. [n. c] Copiah 
Signal print, pp. 21. 9x5%. 

NEILL, PATRICK. 

The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden. Adapted to the 
United States, from the fourth edition, revised and improved 
by the author. Ilkistrated. Philadelphia. 1851. [c. 1851.] Henry 
Carey Baird. pp. ix + 427. 7%x4%. 

NEILL, PATRICK. 

The Practical Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Gardener's Com- 
panion, with a calendar; adapted to the United States from 
the fourth edition, revised and improved by the author. Edited 
by G. Emerson. With notes and additions by R. G. Pardee. 
With elegant illustrations. New York. 1858. [c. 1855.] A. O. 
Moore, pp. xiv -(-408. 7>2x5K. 

NUTTING, W. R. 

California Views In Natural Colors. The California Illus- 
trated Series. Vol. I., No. 2. San Francisco. April, 1889. 
[c. 1889.] California View Publishing Co. pp. 30. 7xlOK. 

PARKER, S. C, Editor. 

Profits and Costs op Fruit-Growing in Nova Scotia. 1893. 
pp. 16. 83^x6. 

PEEK, S. W. 

The Nursery and Orchard; a practical treatise on fruit cul- 
ture. Illustrated. Atlanta, Ga. 1885. [c. 1885. J Jas. P. Harri- 
son & Co. pp. 208. 7% X 5. 



Appendix. 499 

PHILLIPS, NORMAJ^. 

History of Fruit-Gkowing in South Haven, Mich. President 
Phillips' second annual address. [Read before the South Haven 
Pomological Society, Dec. :50, 1872.1 

POOLE. MRS. HESTER M. 

Fruits, and How to Use Them; a practical manual for house- 
keepers; containing nearly seven hundred recipes for whole- 
some preparations of foreign and domestic fruits. New York. 
1890. [c. 1889.] Fowler & Wells, pp. 242. 7^x.5. 

POWELL, E. C, Editor. 

Fruit Packages; the current styles of baskets, boxes, crates and 
barrels used in marketing fruits in all parts of the country. 
Fully illustrated. New York. 1893. [c. 189.3.] The Rural Pub- 
lishing Co. pp. 62. 7}4xri. [The Rural Library, Vol. L, No. 
19. June.] 

PRINCE, WILLIAM ROBERT. 

The Pomological Manual; or, a treatise on fruits; containing 
descriptions of a great number of the most valuable varieties 
for the orchard and garden. Aided by William Prince. Parts 
I. and II. New York. 1831. [c. 1831.] T. & J. Swords, G. & 
C. & H. Carvill, E. Bliss, Collins & Co., G. Thorburn & Sons, 
New York; Judah Dobson, Philadelphia; J. B. Russell, Boston; 
Gideon B. Smith, Baltimore; James Winston, Richmond; and 
Joseph Simmons, Charleston, S. C. pp. vi f 200. vi-|- 216. 9x5%. 
[Parts separately bound.] 

— Same, parts I. and II., 2nd edition. 1832. [e. 1831.] pp. 
vi-j-200, xvi-|-2I6. 9x53^. [Bound together.] 

RIVERS, THOMAS. 

The Miniature Fruit Garden ; or, the culture of pyramidal and 
bush fruit trees. From the I3th English edition. Illustrated. 
New York. n. d. Orange Judd Company, pp. x -|- 133. 7}4 x r>. 
[Publisher's preface dated 1866.] 

— Same. With instructions for root-pruning, etc. 15th edition. 
Boston. 1870. J. E. Tilton & Co. pp. x-fl.56. 63^x43^. [Printed 
from the English plates.] 

SAYERS, E. 

The American Fruit Garden Companion; being a practical trea- 
tise on the propagation and culture of fruit, adapted to the 
Northern and Middle States. Boston. 1839. [c. 1838.] Weeks 
Jordan & Co. pp. xv-|-174. 7x43^. 



500 Appendix. 

STRONG, w. c. 

Fruit Culture; and the laying out and management of a country 
home. Illustrated. Boston. 1885. [c. 1885.] Houghton, Mifflin 
& Co. pp. v + 202. 7x43^. 
-Same, New York. 1892. [c. 1885.] The Rural Publishing Co. 
pp. xiv-j-231. 7Hx5. 

THACHER, JAMES. 

The American Orchardist; or, a practical treatise on the culture 
and management of apple and other fruit trees, with observa- 
tions on the diseases to which they are liable, and their reme- 
dies. To which is added the most approved method of manu- 
facturing and preserving cider, compiled from the latest and 
most approved authorities, and adapted to the use of American 
farmers. Boston. 1822. [c. 1822.] Printed and published by 
Joseph W. Ingraham. pp. vi-j-226. 9x534. 

— Same, bound with American Orchardist and Cottage Economy. 
By William Cobbett. 

"HACHER, JAMES. 

The American Orchardist; or, a practical treatise on the cul- 
ture and management of apple and other fruit trees, with ob- 
servations on the diseases to which they are liable, and their 
remedies. To which is added the most approved method of 
manufacturing and preserving cider, and also wine from apple 
juice and currants. Adapted to the use of Amei'ican farmers, 
and all lovers and cultivators of fine fruit. Second edition, 
much improved. Plj^mouth, Mass. 1825. [c. 1825.] Published 
by Ezra Collier, pp. iv-f 234. 7x434- 

THOMAS, JOHN J. 

The American Fruit Culturist; containing directions for the 
propagation and culture of fruit trees in the nursery, orchard 
and garden. With descriptions of the principal American an',' 
foreign varieties cultivated in the United States. Illustrated 
with three hundred accurate figures. Fourth edition. Auburn. 
1850. [c. 1849.] Derby, Miller & Co. pp. xiv-f420. 7^x5. 

-Same, 1851. [c. 1849.] pp. xiv + 410. 7%x5. 

-Same, Auburn and Buffalo. 1854. [c. 1849,] Miller, Orton & 
Mulligan, pp. xiv 4-421. 7%x5. 

-Same, New York. 1858. [c. 1849.] C. M. Saxton. pp. xiv -f 424. 
1% X 5. Same also by Miller, Orton & Mulligan. 

— Same. Illustrated with four hundred and eighty accurate figures. 
New York. 1867. [c. 1867.] William Wood & Co. pp. vi -}- 511. 
8x5M. 



Appendix. 501 

THOMAS, JOHN J. 

The American Fruit Culturist ; containing practical directions 
for the propagation and culture of all fruits adapted to the 
United States. A thoroughly revised edition [8th], illustrated 
with five hundred and eight accurate figures. Colored frontis- 
piece. New York. 1875. [c. 1885.] William Wood & Co. pp. 
vi + 576. 9x6%. 

— Same. A thoroughly revised edition, illustrated with five hun- 
dred and' nineteen accurate figures. New York. 1885. [c. 187.5- 
1885]. William Wood & Co. pp. vi-f 593. 73^x5. 

— Same, 20th edition, revised and enlarged by William H. S. Wood. 
Illustrated with nearly eight hundred accurate figures. 1897. 
[c. 1875, 1885, 1897.] pp. xv -f 7.58. 8M x 5%. 

THOMAS, .JOHN .1. 

The Fruit Culturist ; adapted to the climate of the northern 
states; containing directions for raising young trees in the 
nursery, and for the management of the orchard and fruit 
garden. Fourth edition. Illustrated. New York. 1847. [c. 
1846.] Mark H. Newman & Co. pp. vi-|-216. 6^x4)^. 

WICKSON, EDWARD .1. 

California Illustrated, No. I. The Vacaville early fruit district 
of California. Second edition. Colored plates. San Francisco. 
1888. [c. 1888.] California View PnhWfihm^ Co. pp. viii-f-149-|- 
viii. 10Mx7. 

WICKSON, EDWARD .T. 

The California Fruits, and How to Grow Them. A manual of 
methods which have yielded greatest success; with lists of va- 
rieties best adapted to the different districts of the state. First 
edition. Illustrated. San Francisco. 1889. [c. 1889.] Dewey & 
Co. pp. vi-j-575. 9x6. 

— Same. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 1891. [c 1)S!S9.] 
pp. viii -f- 599. 9x6. 

-Same. 3rd ed., largely rewritten. 1900. [c. 1899.] Pacific 
Rural Pi-ess. pp. viii 4-477. 9x6. 



i 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Acers, growth of 165 

Aehras 4 

^sculus, growths of 166 

Agents 236 

Age of trees for planting 233 

Air-currents 47 

— currents and frost 119 

— heating 120 

Alabama, frost 125 

Alcohol as preservative 458 

Alligator pear 5 

Almond, kinds of 5 

— for wind-breaks 89 

— mulching 93 

Alnus, growths of 166 

Alternate plan 267 

Altitude and frosts 55 

— and zones 9 

Alwood, W. B., on storing 452 

Amelanchier 6 

— growth of 166 

American Net & Twine Co 296 

Ammoniacal copper carb 369 

Ammonia test for Paris green 374 

Amorpha, growth of 166 

Ampelopsis, growth of 166 

Anacardiaceous fruits 4 

Anacardium 5 

Analyses of cover crops 201 

Ananas 7 

Andrews, W. S., quoted 114 

Aniline dyes 416 

Anonaceous fruits 4 

Anona, species of 4 

— zone 8 

Anthracnose 347 



PAGI 

Apple and the scab 347, 354 

— culture, status of 136 

— growing, status of 30 

— root, broken 280 

— roots 161 

— soils for 19 

— storage-house 449 

— zone 8 

Apples, age for planting 233 

— and cedar-apples 78 

— distance for 240, 273 

— exporting 409 

— fertilizers in 203, 205 

— grading 402, 403 

— hand-picking 401 

— how to pick 385 

— injured by cold 325 

— in sod 172 

— keeping 380, 397 

— packing 407 

— preserving 459 

— ringing 291 

— species of 2 

— sterile and fertile 229 

— storing 437 

— temperature for keeping 444, 450 

— thinning 300, 306 

— when to pick 280 

— with peaches 241, 242 

— wrapping 413 

— trees, and latitude 243, 265 

grafting 298 

mulching 93 

trimming young 251-253 

Apricot-culture, status of 137 

— flower injured 317-321 



(503) 



504 



Index. 



PAGE 

Apricots, distance for 240 

— for wind-breaks 89 

— how to pick 384 

— species of 3 

Aralia, growth of 166 

Arbor vitae for wind-breaks 89 

Arbutus 5 

Arizona 9 

Arsenic, arsenites 370-377 

Artocarpus 3 

Ashes, mounds of 295 

Asimina 4 

Aspect 60 

Associations, shipping 471 

Atmosplaeric drainage 48-59 

Auction sales 464 

Audibert system 117 

Authors on wind-breaks 71 

Bacterial diseases 349 

Bagging fruit 353 

Banana 7 

— zone 8 

Barbadoes gooseberry 7 

Bark-bound trees 285 

Barley for cover 192, 202 

Barnett, quoted 474 

Barnyard manure 211 

Barrel presses 433 

Barrenness of orchards 342 

Bari-y, quoted 72 

— W. C, quoted 33 

Barton, H. L., quoted 154 

Baskets 417 

Basswoods for wind-breaks 89 

Batting berries 395 

Beach, S. A., quoted. . .228, 230, 301, 334 

Beans in orchard 187, 192, 202 

Beekwith on preserving fruits 460 

Bellet, Du, on preserving 458 

Ben Davis apple, region for 226 

Be nedict, mentioned 396 

Berberis, growth of 166 

Berries, keeping 444 

— packing 406 

Berry stands , . , 386 



PAGK 

Betulas, growth of 166 

Birds, protecting from 296 

— migrations of 127 

Blackberries, age for setting 233 

— and rust 78 

— distance for 241 

— laying down 98 

— mulching 93 

— on low lands 59 

— species of 6 

— thinning 305 

— tilling 281 

— when to pick 279 

Blackberry flowers, killed 323 

Black-knot 22 

Blodgett, quoted 80 

Blossoms, effect of rain on 333 

Body-blight 287 

Bone 217, 218 

Boneblack 217 

Books for record 307 

Bordeaux mixture, formula. 371 

for wounds 287, 314 

Borers in grass lands 172 

— keeping out 295 

Boussingault, quoted 115 

Box-scraper 287 

Bramble-fruits 6 

Bread-fruit 3 

Bread-stuffs, raising of 26 

Bridgeman, quoted 72 

Buckwheat for cover 191, 202 

Budding young stocks 235 

Budd, quoted 51 

Bud-moth 369 

Buds, winter-killing of 316, 321 

Buffalo berries, mialchirg 93 

— berry 6 

Bug, what is a 25 

Buildings for storage 426, 436, 444 

Burrill, quoted 281 

Bush-fruits, defined 6 

Butternut 4 

Buying trees 235 

California, frost ... ^ 112. 



Index. 



505 



PAGE 

California fruits, packing 410 

— shipping from 468 

— spraying for frost lOG, 110 

— wind-breaks in 76, 77, 89 

Canada, frosts 43 

Cane-fruits 6 

Canker-worm 78, 369 

Canned goods 32 

Caraunda 6 

Carbolic soap 285 

Carbonate copper 369 

Card, F. W 305 

— on rain 339 

Carica 5 

Carissa C 

Carob 4 

Carolinas, frost 125 

Carpinus, growth of 166 

Cars, refrigerator 466 

Caryas, growth of 167 

Cashew 5 

Casimiroa 3 

Castaneas, growth of 167 

— species of 5 

Catalpa, growth of 167 

Catch crops 164, 184 

Cedar- apples 78 

Celery, keeping 444, 445 

Cellars 436, 438 

Celtis. growth of 167 

Ceratonia 4 

Cercis, growth of 167 

Ceriman 7 

Chart of frost 126 

Chautauqua 41, 42, 52 

— freeze 327 

Chemical fertilizers 212 

Cherimoya 4 

Cherries and birds 296 

— distance for 240, 273 

— how to pick 384 

— keeping 397, 444 

— shaking off 395 

— species of 3 

— when to pick 382 



PAGE 

Cherry-eulture, status of 137 

Cherry-knot 22 

Cherry, Surinam 4 

— trees in Virginia 243 

Chestnuts for wind-breaks 89 

— species of 5 

Chicago, market of 474 

Chill room 436 

Chinquapin 5 

Chrysophyllum 4 

Cions, selection of 234 

Citron 3 

Citrous fruits 3 

— groves, frosts 107 

— zone 8 

Citrus, species of 3 

Cladrastis, growth of 167 

Clinton, L. A., quoted 145 

Clod-crushers 157 

Clouds and frost Ill 

Clover, analysis of 202 

— Crimson 164, 190, 199, 202, 218 

— for orchards 189, 202 

Coccoloba 5 

Cocoa-nut 5 

— zone 8 

Cocos 5 

Codlin-moth 369, 370 

— distribution of 20, 24 

Cold, injuries by 313 

Cold-storage 435, 438 

Cold, what is injurious 329 

Coloring baskets 416 

Commercial fertilizers on hard 

lands 141 

Complete fertilizers '. 216 

Connecticut peach orchards 272 

— peach trees in 243 

— temp, in 80 

Constitutional diseases 349 

Consumer, reaching the 461 

Cook, A. J., quoted 344 

Cook's apple picker 394 

Coote on pollination 34<> 

Copper carbonate formula 369 



506 



Index. 



PAGE 

Corn for cover 191, 202 

orchards 170 

— marker 265 

Cornus, growth of 167 

Corylus 5 

Cosmopolitan fruits 9, 19 

Cover crops 164, 184 

Covering plants 98 

Cow peas, analysis of 202 

— in orchard 187. 192, 202 

Crab-apples, species of 2 

Craig, John, qtioted 275 

Cranberries, distance for 241 

— flooding 107 

— keeping 444 

~ picking 400 

— sorting 433 

Cranberry, inventory of 7 

Crataegus, growth of 167 

Crates 420 

— for picking 389 

Crimson clover. . . . 164, 190, 199, 202, 218 

analysis of 202 

Cropping the orchard 170 

Cultivators 151 

Curculio machine 395 

Currants, age for setting 233 

— distance for 241 

— mulching 93 

— shaking off 395 

— species of 6 

— thinning 303 

Currents of air vs. frost 119 

Cyphomandra 7 

Cypress for wind-breaks 89 

Dakota, frost 112 

Date 5 

Dates, keeping 444 

Davies, D. O., quoted 120 

Deciduous zone 8 

Delaware, fruit trees in 243 

Determinate growth 164 

Dewberries and rust 78 

— species of 6 

Bew-point. determining 130, 131 



PAOX 

Dew-point, raising 54 

Diospyros, species of 4 

Discovery 26 

Diseases 344 

Distance for planting 239, 273 

Distribution 461 

— of products 34 

Dolichos sesquipedalis 194 

Double planting 241 

Downing, quoted 71 

— storage house 445 

Downing's label 312 

Drags 149, 1 50 

Drainage 154 

— atmospheric 48, 51 

Dried fruits, keeping 444 

Droughts 142 

Drupaceous fruits 3 

Dry freezing 10 

Du Bellet, on preserving 458 

Duggar, B, M., on storage 445 

Dutton, A. H., spraying rig 357 

Dwarfs vs. standards 233 

Earle, F. S., on shipping 467 

— Parker 269, 270 

Ebenaceous fruits 4 

Egg-cases 424 

Elseagnus 6 

Elevation and frost 41, 44, 55, 58 

Elms for wind-breaks 89 

Emulsion formula 369 

Eriobotrya 2 

Eucalyptus for wind-breaks 89 

Eugenia, species of 4 

Euonymus, growth of 167 

Europe, smudges in 114 

Evans, J. C, mentioned 270 

Evaporated fruits, keeping 444 

— goods 32 

Evaporation in winter It) 

Evolution of fruit-region 26 

Excommunication of bugs 25 

Exploration 26 

Exporting apples 409 

Exposure 59, 60 



Index. 



507 



PAGE 

Facing barrels 407 

Fagus, growth of 167 

Fairchild, quoted 229, 334 

Fall planting 237 

— plowing 144, 169 

Family fruit garden 276 

Femald, C. H., quoted 23 

Ferrocyanide tests 372 

Fertile varieties 227, 229 

Fei'tility and productiveness 343 

Fertilizers 202 

Fertilizer summjiry 219 

Fertilizing 175 

Ficus 3 

Fig 3 

— Indian 7 

— zone 8 

Figs, distance for 240 

— for wind-breaks 89 

— keeping 444 

— laying down 98 

Filbert 5 

Finkle, quoted 110 

First-class fruits 401 

— tree 231 

Float 153 

Flooding for frost 106 

Florida freeze 39 

— freezes 120 

— zones 8 

— wind-breaks in 77, 89 

Flowers, injury by cold 322 

— sterile 227 

Fogs and frost Ill 

Forest conditions 134 

Forests and fruit-growing 77 

Fragaria, species of 7 

France, smudging in 114 

Fraxinus, growth of 167 

Freezes 39 

Frost, injurious degree of 329 

— prediction of 121 

— protection from 92 

Frosts and location 39 

Frozen trees 314 



PAGE 

Fruit-buds, winter-killing 316 

Fruit, definition of 1 

— market, illustration of 473 

Fruit-pickers 392 

Fruit-rot 383 

Fruit trees, plant-food in 204 

Fruit-zones 7, 8 

Fuller, quoted 74 

Fulton, quoted 73 

Fungi and fruit growing 21 

— attacks by 349 

Galloway, quoted 106, 112 

Galls on roots 351 

Garden and Forest, quoted 179 

Garey, quoted 77 

Genesee Fruit Company 444 

Geographical adaptations 226 

Geography of fruit-growing 7 

Georgia, frost 125 

— packing in 431, 432 

— peach orchards 272 

Germany, fruits in 411 

— smudging in 115 

Gift package 416 

Ginkgo 5 

Gipsy-moth : 24 

Girdled trees 288 

Girdling 288 

Gleditschia, growth of 167 

Gluts 34 

Glycosmis 3 

Goodman, L. A., mentioned 270 

Gooseberries, age for setting 233 

— shaking off 395 

— species of 6 

Gooseberry, Barbadoes 7 

— effect of mulching 93 

— Otaheite 5 

Goumi 6 

Grading finiit 401, 403 

Grafting, top 298 

— young stocks 235 

Grain in orchards 170 

Granadilla 6 

Grape business, status of 32. Si 



508 



Index. 



PAGE 

Grape fruit 3 

— houses 425 

— root, broken ^. . .279 

— trimming young 252 

'Trapes, bagging 353 

— distance for 241 

— how to pick 384 

— injury by cold 327 

— keeping 397, 443, 444 

— mulching 93 

— packing 406. 429 

— preserving 459, 4G0 

— rain on blossoms 336 

— ringing 290 

— species of 5,6 

—sterile and fertile 230 

Grazing 26 

Green, quoted 75 

— manures 184 

Ground bone 218 

Growing parts, injury to 822 

Growths, records of 165 

Guava, species of 4 

Gurney, quoted 75 

Hail injuries 352 

Hair, Uriah, mentioned 396 

Hale, J. H., mentioned 259, 271. 273 

— orchards, packing in 432 

Halstead, B. D., quoted 303 

— on rain 338 

— on winter-killing 318 

Hammon, W. H.. quotedi..l07, 112, 120, 

130, 329 

Hand-picking 401 

Hansen, N. E., quoted 51 

— on sim-scald 284 

Hardiness and moisture 11, 18 

Hard-pan 143, 155 

Harness, Sherwood 159 

Harrowing 149, 157 

Hartlib, Samuel, quoted 142 

Hawes, B. F.. quoted 325 

Hay iu orchards 170 

Hexagonal plan 265 

Heading-in 169, 240, 293. 315. 341 



PACK 

Heating the air 120 

Heguilus, qiioted 115 

Hemlock for wind-breaks 8S 

Herb-like fruits ... 7 

Hessian-fly 24 

Hexamer, on storing 442 

Hickories, species of 4 

Hicoria, species of 4 

Hide-bound trees 286 

High lands 59 

Hiles, T. L., Ice book 443 

Hogs in orchards 173 

Holes for trees 244 

Home plantation 275 

Horn-fly 25 

Hovenia 5 

How to plant 244 

Humus 141. 179, 218, 221 

Hunting 26 

Husmann, quoted 74 

lee storage 435 

Illinois, frost in 332 

Illustration of a market 473 

Impotent varieties 227, 229 

Inarching 289 

Indetei'miuate growth 165 

Indian fig 17 

Insects and fruit-growing 20 

— attacks by 348 

Insurance, spraying is 354 

Irrigating for frost 106, 107 

Isophenal lines 128 

Isoproetals 9 

Isotherms 9, 128 

Ithaca, temperatures at 56 

Jellies 32 

Jew plum 4 

Juglans, species of 4 

Jujube 5 

Juneberries, mulching 93 

Juneberry 6 

Kainit 215,317 

Kaki 4 

— distance for .' 240 

Kansas, protecting peacb&s in ......101 



Index. 



509 



PAGE 
Kedzie on frosts 108 

— on psyehrometer 128 

Keeping fruit 397, 435, 444 

Kenrick, quoted 71 

Kerosene emulsion, formula 369 

Kerr, J. W., quoted 229 

Kieffer pear, region for 226 

King, quoted 48, 146 

Kinney, T. L., storage house 448 

Knisely, A. L., quoted . ." l.'i 

Knots on roots 351 

Kiiline-Rixdorf, B. L., quoted 412 

Kumquat 3 

Labels 307 

Ladders 390 

Lagrolet system 117 

Lakes and frosts 42, 60 

Larch for wind-breaks 89 

Latitude 9 

— and fruit trees 243, 265 

Laws for pests 22 

Laying down plants 98, 99 

— out the plantation 254 

Leguminous fruits 4 

Lemon 3 

Lemons, distance for 241 

— keeping 444 

Lestout, on frosts 116, 1 17 

Lichen, office of 176 

Lime 3, 218 

— arsenite of 37? 

— berry ;{ 

— Spanish 5 

Line, laying-out by 259, 260 

Lining packages 413 

Lippens, on frost 115 

Liquors 32 

Liriodendron, growth of 167 

Litehi 5 

Location for fruit-growing 37 

Locust for wind-breaks 89 

Lodeman, on nitrogen 214 

— quoted 234 

Lodeman's label 312 

London purple, formula 371 



PAOK 

Loomis, quoted 80 

Loquat 2 

Low lands 59 

Lucuma 4 

Lumbering 26 

MacGillivray, A. D., quoted 121 

McCluer, G. W., quoted 332 

Madura, growth of 167 

Macomber. J. T., quoted 100 

Magnolia, growth of 167 

Maine, frost ]2."> 

Mammea 5 

Mammee apple 5 

Mango 4 

— zone 8 

Manitoba, frost 112 

— wind-breaks 51 

Manufactured goods 32 

Manure 211 

Mangifera 4 

Maples for wind-breaks 87, 89 

Maps for orchards 307 

Market, illustration of 473 

— location 38 

Markets and picking 379, 385 

— finding 461 

Marking out the ai-ea 254 

Marmalade tree 4 

Marj'land law 22 

Maturity of fruits 279 

Medlar 2 

Melicocca 5 

Mespilus 2 

Mice, protecting from 283, 294 

Michigan 20 

— fruit trees in 243, 265 

— peaches in 45 

— planting in 200 

— temp, in 81 

— wind-break in 88 

— wind-breaks in 66, 70 

Middleman 464 

Millet for cover 192, 202 

Mining 26 

Missouri, fruit trees in 243 



510 



Index. 



PAGE 

Mixing fruits 241 

Moisture and cover crops 185 

— determinant 9 

— from leaves 281 

— loss in winter 10 

— of soil 142 

— vs. harrowing 149 

plowing 145 

rolling 152 

tillage 160 

Monstera 7 

Moore, quoted 77 

Moraceous fruits 3 

Morus, species of 3 

Mountain ash as stock 19 

Mulberry, species of 3 

Mulching for frost 92 

Mulch of earth 145 

Mulching trees 245 

Muriate of potash 215, 217, 218 

Musaceous fruits 7 

Musa, species of 7 

Myrica 5 

Myrtaceous fruits 4 

Nectarine, kinds of 3 

Nectarines, distance for 240 

Nectarine tree, exp. with 96 

Neighborhood storage 436 

Nematode 21 

Nematodes 351 

Nephelium 5 

Netting about trees 283, 295 

— for birds 296 

New England, trees in 243 

— Hampshire, frost 125 

— Jersey, expts. in 210 

— Mexico 9 

— York, frost 125 

frosts 43 

fruit trees in 265 

peaches in 44 

temp, in 81 

wind-breaks in G4, 69 

Kitrate of soda 213, 217, 218 

Nitrogen, amoimt of 203 



PAGB 

Nitrogen for fruits 212 

North Carolina, planting in . .261 

Nozzles 358 

Nubbins of strawberries 323 

Nueiculture 4 

Nursery lands 178 

Nurseryman, business of 231 

Nursery stock, injury ]>y cold 315 

in orchards 170 

Nut-fi-uits, kinds of 4 

Nuts, keeping 444 

Oats for cover 192, 202 

Oils 32 

j Olden plan 270, 272 

! Old orchards, renovating 340 

I Olea 5 

Olive 5 

— zone 8 

Opuntia, species of 7 

Orange groves, wind-bi-eaks for 90 

— soils for 19 

Oranges, distance for 241 

— keeping 444 

— species of 3 

Orchard culture 2 

— definition of 2 

^- plans 265 

Orchards, renovating 340 

Oregon 20 

Organization 471 

Osage orange for wind-bi-eaks 89 

Otaheite gooseberrj- 5 

Outlook for fruit-growing 27 

Over-production 34 

Ozark region 271 

Pacific zones 8, 9 

Packages 415 

— small and large 465 

Packing grapes 429 

— houses 425 

— how to 406 

— of fruit 401 

Paddock's label 312 

Paint for wounds 287, bi4 

Palmaceous fruits ii 



Index. 



5J1 



PAGE 

Palmetto for wind-breaks 90 

Papaw 4, 5 

Paper on fruits 413 

— tarred 295 

Parasite determinant 21 

Parasites and productiveness 343 

Parentage of trees 234 

Paris green, formula 371 

tests for 372, 374 

Passiflora 6 

Passifloraceous fruits 6 

Pasturing orchards 172 

Peach buds, killed 319, 321 

— culture, status of 138 

Peaches, age for planting 233 

— among apples 241, 242 

— distance for 240, 273 

— how to pick 384 

— keeping 297, 444 

— mulching 93 

— packing 406 

— picking 388 

— thinning 300, 306 

Peach-growing and frost 125 

— status of 44 

Peach, soils for 10 

— species of 3 

— trees, and latitude 243 

fertilizing 210 

nitrogen on 212 

price of 236 

protecting 100, 101 

trimming young 247, 248, 253 

— when to pick 382 

— yellows 22, 47, 350 

— zone 8 

Pear, Alligator 5 

Pear-bUght 287, 350 

Pear buds, killing 321, 325 

— on mountain ash 19 

— prickly 7 

— roots 161 

— trees, trimming young 249 

Pears, age for planting 233 

— distance for 240, 273 



PAGE 

Pears, dwarf, age for planting 233 

depth to set 244 

good stock 232 

picking 390 

status of 137 

— hand-picking 401 

— how to pick 385 

— injured by cold 325 

— in sod 172 

— keeping 444 

— packing 407 

— presei-ving 459 

— pruning Kieffer 293 

— rain on blossoms 334 

— species of 2 

— sterile and fertile 229 

— when to pick 380 

— with peaches 241 

— wrapping 413 

Peas, analysis of 201 

— in orchards 187, 102, 202 

Pecan 4 

Pecans, distance for 240 

Peddlers 236 

Pegging down trees 98 

Penicillium glaucum 460 

Pennsylvania, frost 125 

— fruit trees in 265 

Pepper tree for wind-breaks 89 

Pereskia 7 

Pericarp 1 

Perkins, C. H., on storage 436 

Persea 5 

Persimmons, species of 4 

Peru, smudging in 116 

Pests and fruit-growing 20 

Petit, A., preservative 458 

Petroleum for frosts 112 

Pettit, W. W., house of 427. 430 

Phenology 127 

Philadelphus, growth of 167 

Phin, quoted 74 

Phoenix 5 

Phosphoric acid, amount of 204 

for fruits 216 



512 



Index. 



PAGE 

Phyllanthus 5 

Phylloxera, flooding for 107 

Physiological diseases 349 

Pickers, keeping records with 398 

Picking, how to do 384 

— when to do 378 

Pineapple 7 

— soils for 19 

Pineapples, covering lOli 

Pines for wind-breaks 89, 91 

Pistacio 5 

Pistil, killing of 310 

Place for frnit-growing 37 

Plains region 9 

Planker 153 

Plans for orchards 265 

Plantain 7 

Plant, how to 244 

Planting 224 

Plants, choosing 230 

Platamis, growth of 1G7 

Pliny, on frosts 314 

Plow, handy 281 

Plowing vs. moisture 145 

Plow, laying-out by 256 

Plum buds, killing 321, 325 

— culture, status of 137 

— injured by hail 352 

— Jew 4 

— knot 22 

— on peach 19 

Plums, age for planting 233 

— distance for 240, 273 

— hand-picking 401 

— how to pick 384 

— impotent 228, 229 

— keeping 444 

— species of 3 

— when to pick 382 

Plum tree, injured by cold 315 

— trees, price of 236 

trimming young 251 

Pollen and weather 227 

Pollination 227 

— and rain 333 



PAGE 

Pomaceous fruits 2 

Pomegranate 5 

— zone 8 

Pomelo 3 

Pomology, definition of 1 

Pond-apple. 4 

Pools 472 

Poplars for wind-breaks 88, 89 

Populus, growth of 167, 168 

Potash, amount of 204 

— for fruits 214 

Potato and tlie bug 347 

— beetle 347, 369 

Potato-bug 25 

Powell, G. T., quoted 409 

Prediction of frost 121 

Preserving f niits 258 

Presses for barrels 433 

Price of stock 236 

Prickly pear 7 

Productiveness of orchards 343 

Propagation and productiveness 343 

Prophylaxis 350 

Prune, distance for 273 

Prunes, keeping 444 

Pruning and productiveness 343 

— trees 292, 300 

— young trees 240 

Prunus, growth of 108 

— species of 3,5 

Psidium 4 

Psychrometer 128 

Puddling ' 246 

Pumps 358 

Pimica 5 

Pyrus, growth of 168 

— species of 2 

Quantities of seed for cover crops.. .202 

Quercus, growth of 168 

Quince-culture, status of 137 

Quinces, age for planting. 238 

— and cedar-apples 78 

— distance for 240 

— keeping 444 

— low lands for 59 



Index. 



513 



PAGE 

Quinces, mulching 93 

— species of 2 

Quincunx system 241, 265 

Quinn, Quoted 74 

Rabbits 283, 294 

Rain, effect upon blossoms 233 

Raisins, keeping 444 

Rape for cover 191 

Raspberries, age for setting 233 

— and rust 78 

— distance for 241 

— harvesting 395 

— keeping 397 

— laying down 98 

— mulching 93 

— rain on 339 

— species of 6 

— thinning 305 

— tilling 281 

Raspberry, anthracnose 347 

— galls on 351 

Records of orchards 307 

Red-rust 78 

Refrigerator cars 466 

Renovating orchards 340 

Repacking 441 

Ribaceous fruits 6 

Ribes, growth of 168 

— species of 6 

Rigs for spraying 356 

Ringing 290, 291 

Ripeness 279 

Rivers and frosts 42, 60 

Roberts on fertilizing orchards 203 

Rollers 152 

Root-gall 351 

Root-knot 21, 351 

Root-pruning 280 

Roots, broken 279, 280 

— extent of 161 

— trimming 246 

Rose-apple 4 

Rose-chafer 78 

Roses, mulching 94 

Rosette 22 

iriH 



PAGE 

Rosin, for freezes 121 

Rotation 220 

— and pests 347 

Rows, making straight 254 

Rubaceous fruits 6 

Rubus, species of 6 

Rudisill, quoted 76 

Rural Life, quoted 51 

Russia, laying down trees in 98 

Rye 164, 190, 202 

St. John's Bread 4 

Salix, growth of 168 

San Jose scale 22 

Sapodilla 4 

Sapotaceous fruits 4 

Sapota, white 3 

Sauces 32 

Scab, apple 347, 354, 369 

Scale, San Jose 22 

Schinus for wind-breaks 89 

Scraping 286 

Screens as covers 106 

Sea-grape 5 

Seedlings, value as stocks 235 

Selection, influence of 234 

Self-sterile fruits 229 

Semi-tropical zone 8 

Serres, on frosts 114 

Setting the plants 224 

Shaddock 3 

Shaking off fruits 395, 401 

Sheds, for packing 432 

Sheep, in orchards 173 

Sheldon, S. L., quoted 56 

Shelter belts 87 

Shepherdia 6 

Shipping 461 

— associations 471 

Site 58 

Slitting the bark 286 

Slopes 60 

Small-fruit culture, inTentory of . . . 6 

— defined 6 

Small-fruits in orchards 243 

Smith, E. F., on nitrogen 212 



514 



Index. 



PAGE 

Smoking for frost Ill 

Smudging for frost Ill 

Snow, G. C, grapes 432, 443 

Snows, utilizing 149 

Soap for trees 285 

Soda, arsenite of 377 

— nitrate of 213, 217, 218 

Sod in orchards 172 

Soil determinant 18 

— mulch 145 

Sonoran zone 9 

Sorting-tables 433 

Sour-sop 4 

South Carolina rock 216-218 

Spalding, quoted 77 

Speculation 26 

Spondias 4 

Sprayed fruit 415 

Spraying 344 

— for frost 106 

— on flowers 333 

Spring planting 238 

Sprinkling for frost 106 

Spruces for wind-breaks 87, 91 

Stable manure 211 

Staking out orchards 261 

— trees 282 

Standards vs. dwarfs 233 

Stands for picking 386 

Star-apple 4 

Sterile varieties 227, 229 

Stevens, H. R., quoted 120 

Stock, first-class 231 

— protecting from 296 

Stock-raising 26 

Stocks vs. soils 19 

Stone fruits 3 

Storage houses 426, 436, 444 

Storing fruits 435, 438 

Strawberries, age for setting 233 

— covering 98, 106 

— distance for 241 

— how to pick 385 

— in orchards 243 

— keeping 397 



PAOi: 

Strawberries, mulching 95 

— on low lands 59 

— species of 7 

— sterile and fertile 230 

— when to pick 279 

Strawberry diseases 78 

— field and frost 53 

— flowers and weather 227 

— is cosmopolitan 9 

— nubbins 323 

— rust 347 

— tree 5 

Stringfellow system 246 

Stripping trees 238 

Strong, quoted 74 

Subsoiling 155 

Substitution 237 

Sugar-apple 4 

Sulfate of potash 215, 21 7 

Sulfur for bleaching 417 

— test for Paris green 372 

Summer-fallowing orchards 173 

Sun-scald 282 

Superphosphate 216, 217 

Surinam cherry 4 

Surveying plantations 254 

Sylvinit 217 

Syringa, growth of 168 

Tags for pickers 398 

Tallies 307 

Tamarind 4 

Tamarindus 4 

Tangierine 3 

Tare for cover 195 

Tarred paper 295 

Tarr, R. S., quoted 42, 52 

Teller, analysis by 201 

Temperate zone 8 

Temperature determinant 8 

Temperatures for fruits 444 

Tennessee frost 125 

Tent-caterpillar 360 

Tent-caterpillars 78 

Terminalia 5 

Texas, fruit trees in 243 



Index. 



. 515 



PAGE 

Texture of soil 140 

Thermometer, wet- and dry-bulb . 128 

Thinning frtiit 299 

Thomas, quoted 72 

Thorn trees and cedar- apples. ... 78 
Tickets for pickers. . . 398 

Tilia, growth of 168 

Tillage . 133, 277 

— and productiveness 243 

— philosophy of 138 

— value of 139 

Tilling for frost 109 

— suggestions for 154 

Time to plant 237 

Top-grafting 298 

Trade-mark 414 

Transpiration from leaves 281 

Transportation . 466 

— facilities 38 

Trays for picking 386 

— keeping fruit on 441 

Tree, first-class 231 

Tree-fruit culture 2 

Trees, choosing 230 

Trifolium incarnatum 202 

Trimming trees 292 

— young trees 246 

Triphrasia 3 

Troop, James, quoted . . 296 

Tropical zone 8 

Turner, E. T., quoted 40 

Turnips for cover 191, 202 

Twigs, moisture in 10 

Tying trees 282 j 

Umbrellas as fruit-pickers 395 

Unions . 472 

United States, fruit in 35 

Unventilated crates 397 

Vaccinium 71 

Van Deman plan ' . . . . 265 

quoted 242, 256, 265 | 

Vapor, alcoholic, as preservative . . .458 j 

— and frost . 106 j 

Varieties and productiveness. 243 I 

— choosing 225 



PAOB 

Varieties running out 225 

Vegetables, keeping. 444 

Vermin, protecting from. . 283,294 
Vermont, frost 125 

— storage house 446 

— wind-breaks in 73 

Vetch, analysis of 201 

— in orchard 187,195,202 

Vicia sativa 197 

Vigna Sinensis 192 

Vine-fruit culture 5 

Vineyard label 312 

Vineyards, status of 137 

Virginia, frost 12r 

— fruit trees in 243 

— storage house 452 

Viticulture, inventory of 5 

Vitis, growth of 168 

— species of 5, 6 

Voorhees, E. B., quoted . . 207, 210, 217 

Wagons for picking. 389 

Waite, M. B., quoted 228. 229 

Walnuts for wind-breaks 89 

— species of . . 4 

Warder, quoted. • 71 

Washington, quoted 24 

Washing trees 285 

Water and frosts 42, 60 

— in air. ... 106 

Watermelons, keeping .... 444 
Waugh, on storing apples 446 

— quoted.. 73 

Wealth of farmer. . . .... 28 

Weather vs. pollen-bearing 227 

Weeds 136, 177, 278 

Wellhouse orchards 259, 268 

West Virginia, frost 125 

Wet- and dry-bulb 128 

Whale-oil soap 285 

Wheat, constituents of 206 

— fields, frost in 112 

— for cover 192, 202 

Whitten, quoted 92 

Wiekson, quoted 78 

Willows for wind-breaks 89 



516 



Index. 



PAGE 

Wilson, on thinning apples 302 

Wind-breaks 48,51 

— discussion of 62 

Winds and fruit-growing 47 

Wine, keeping 444 

Wine-making 32 

Winter-killing of fruit-buds. ... 316 

— of wood 313 

Winter preparations 294 

— trimming 254 

Wire, laying-out by 260 

— screen 283, 295 



PAGE 

Wisconsin 48 

Women as packers 405 

Wrapping fruits 413 

Yard manure 211 

Yellows of peach 22, 47, 850 

Yeomans, spraying rig 356 

— T.G., quoted 261 

— T. G. & Sons, on wind-breaks. .84, 86 

Zinc labels 308 

Zizyrhus 5 

Zones, of fruit 7, « 



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